cruise flight phase

3. Initial Climb

• Descent Planning and Descent
• Approach and ILS Landing
• After Landing and Taxi to Gate
• Powering Down
• Advanced Guides
• A320neo Pilot Briefing
• Standard Operating Procedures
• Airliner Flying Guide
• Terms and Abbreviations
• Development Corner
• Release Notes

Takeoff, Climb and Cruise

This guide will explain the correct procedures to accomplish takeoff, climb and establish cruise altitude.

The level of detail in this guide is meant to get a FlyByWire A320neo beginner safely up in the air and to cruise level under normal conditions, while simplifying details which are not (yet) important for a beginner.

A beginner is defined as someone familiar with flying a GA aircraft or different types of airliners. Aviation terminology and know-how is a requirement to fly any airliner, even in Microsoft Flight Simulator.

Further reading: A320 Autoflight Also, you will find many great videos on YouTube on how to fly the FlyByWire A32NX. Check out the FlyByWire YouTube Channel as well: FlyByWire on YouTube

MSFS Start from Gate or Runways

Microsoft Flight Simulator allows you to start your flight from cold & dark at a gate or directly from the runway with the aircraft ready for takeoff.

For this guide, we assume you started cold & dark at the gate and taxied to the runway holding point as per the previous chapters of this beginner guide.

If you did start on the runway, you can skip the first part (Lineup) and directly continue reading Takeoff .

Prerequisites

Aircraft is in TAXI state as per previous chapters

Download FlyByWire Checklist

Chapters / Phases

This guide will cover these phases:

• Initial climb

Base Knowledge About the Airbus A320 for Flight

This list is focussed on differences to other non-Airbus airliners, a user might be used to.

Fly-by-wire system Traditional mechanical and hydro-mechanical flight control systems use a series of levers, rods, cables, pulleys and more, which pilots move to adjust control surfaces to aerodynamic conditions. Their "hands on" design gives pilots a direct, tactile feel for how the aircraft is handling aerodynamic forces as they fly. On the other hand, mechanical systems are also complicated to operate, need constant monitoring, are heavy and bulky, and require frequent maintenance.

In fly-by-wire systems, when the pilot moves flight controls, those movements are converted into electronic signals, which are then interpreted by the aircraft's Electrical Flight Control System (EFCS) to adjust actuators that move flight control surfaces. Computers also monitor sensors throughout the aircraft to make automatic adjustments that enhance the flight.

Because fly-by-wire is electronic, it is much lighter and less bulky than mechanical controls, allowing increases in fuel efficiency and aircraft design flexibility, even in legacy aircraft. And to prevent flight critical failure, most fly-by-wire systems also have triple or quadruple redundancy back-ups built into them. source: BAE Systems

See also: Fly-by-wire Wikipedia

Autotrim The A320 has a feature called "Autotrim", which makes it unnecessary to hold the sidestick or use the trim wheel for holding the current pitch. This system is always active, even when the Autopilot is off (in Normal Law, which means under normal circumstances with a fully functional aircraft).

Autothrust The A320 has Autothrust which is similar to Autothrottle (e.g., in a Boeing), but it does not move the thrust levers. Basically, the thrust levers are only moved by the pilot and never move on their own. The thrust levers act as a maximum allowed power setting for the Autothrust system. During normal flight (after takeoff) the levers stay in the CL climb detent, and the Autothrust system will set engine power accordingly.

Autopilot The A320's Autopilot system works a bit differently from other manufacturer's systems. The A320 FCU controls allow setting certain values and then push or pull the knobs. Pushing usually means automatic control (Managed Mode) and pulling will use the manually selected value (Selected Mode).

Microsoft Flight Simulator knobs

Flight phases The A320 uses flight phases to manage different parts of a flight. These are preflight, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, approach, go around, done. They match the PERF pages in the MCDU (see Preparing the MCDU ).

Protections The A320 includes many protections for the pilot, which make it nearly impossible to stall or overspeed the aircraft. It's beyond this beginner-guide to go into details (Normal law, Alternate Law, ...)

• ATC (Ground or Tower) has instructed us to hold at a runway holding point and wait until we are cleared to "line up" or "take off".
• Aircraft is still in TAXI state (see previous chapters) and parking brakes are set.

Typically, it is here at the latest that we are asked to switch to Tower ATC frequency for takeoff clearance.

While approaching the runway holding point or at the latest at the runway holding point the "Before takeoff checklist" needs to be completed.

Before takeoff checklist

The "Before Takeoff" checklist is divided into two parts:

• "Down to the line" (or "Above the line") means before "ATC Takeoff Clearance".
• "Below the line" means after T.O. clearance (when lined up) but before starting the roll.

Preparation and "Down to the line" Checklist pre-T.O.-clearance

The following steps from TAXI setup need to be done and checked:

Check OVHD panel: APU off, no lights visible under normal circumstances (exception: Pack 1+2 might be OFF if part of procedure)

Check Flight Controls

Check Flight Instruments

Advise Cabin Crew

• The cabin crew will notify the pilots with a "Cabin Ready" button once they are ready for takeoff.
• In the FBW A320, this is simulated by pressing the CALLS ALL button on the left of the overhead panel.
• This will set the "Cabin Ready" status as shown in the ECAM .

Check correct FLAPS setting (must be in line with PERF TAKE OFF page)

Check V 1 , V R , V 2 speeds and also, if required, FLX temperature setting (PERF TAKE OFF page)

• check squawk ID number
• Set to AUTO or On
• Set ALT RPTG to ON

Check COM frequency

• Tip: set the standby frequency of COM 1 to the Departure frequency to be able to quickly change after takeoff

Check ECAM - no blue writing should be visible for these:

AUTO BRK MAX

• CABIN READY
• TO CONFIG NORMAL

Press T.O. Config button below the ECAM to check takeoff configuration

Check radar panel:

• Set Weather Radar to Sys 1 to show weather on ND
• Check if Predictive Windshear Alerts (PWS) is set to AUTO (should have been set to AUTO during TAXI)

Entering Runway

Before we start rolling, we visually check that no other aircraft is on final approach. We can also use TCAS on the ND to check for aircraft in the vicinity.

If everything is clear, we release the parking brake and slowly roll onto the runway in the direction of takeoff and come to a stop on the runway's center line.

There is also a rolling start where we would not stop but directly apply thrust for takeoff once we are straight on the runway. But, as a beginner, a full stop is recommended, so we can double-check everything.

When we reached our starting point, we stop and set the parking brakes.

If we were only cleared to "line up" we wait here until we get clearance to take off .

This concludes Lineup .

• Aircraft is on runway and fully setup for takeoff as per previous chapters.

Preparation and "Below the line" Checklist post-T.O.-clearance

After ATC (Tower) gives clearance to "line up" or "take off" we are allowed to enter the runway.

To "line up" means that we roll onto the runway and stop at our starting point. We MUST wait for ATC to give us "takeoff clearance" before we can continue.

"Cleared for takeoff" means we are allowed to actually start the takeoff when aligned with the runway.

Shortly before we start our takeoff roll, we do the following steps:

Check PACKS as required (some airlines take off with Packs OFF to allow more power to thrust and save fuel - not necessarily required)

Turn on landing lights ( LAND ) and check if STROBE light is in AUTO or ON

The correct switch settings are:

• RWY TURN OFF lt is ON - NOSE light is at T.O. (T.O. = takeoff)
• LAND lights are both ON
• STROBE is on ON or AUTO
• BEACON , NAV & LOGO should have been on during taxi already
• WING is OFF . It is usually only on for wing inspection and to detect ice accretion on the wing

Lights at Takeoff

Setting the RWY TURN OFF light to ON , the LAND lights to ON and the NOSE light to T.O. minimizes bird strike hazard during takeoff.

Check ENG MODE SEL as required (should be on MODE NORM )

Set TCAS to TA or TA/RA and traffic to ALL or ABV

A typical standard takeoff follows these steps:

Airline SOPs

Some airline's SOPs (standard operating procedures) might have a different order for these steps.

Release parking brake and hold down manual brakes.

Apply thrust slowly to about 50 % N1 until both engines are stabilized (N1 stays constant at around 50 %) while still holding the brakes.

Push sidestick forward half the way to put pressure on the front gear

Release brakes and apply FLX/MCT or TO GA power. (depending on if you have configured a FLEX temperature, and the runway is long enough for a FLEX start)

The PFD Flight Mode Annunciator ( FMA ) now shows several things which we should check when the aircraft starts rolling:

From the left:

• Thrust: set to MAN FLX + 60
• Active (green): SRS (pitch guidance to maintain V 2  + 10)
• Armed (blue): CLB mode (is next after SRS is done)
• Active: RWY (automatic runway axis follow up through ILS use)
• Armed: NAV (navigation guidance according to HDG knob)
• Autopilots are off
• Flight Director 1 and 2 are ON
• A/THR (Autothrust) is armed (not active yet)

Vertical and lateral guidance are only shown via Flight Director, as we have not turned on the Autopilot yet and need to be followed manually by the pilot.

Keep the aircraft on the center line while accelerating down the runway.

There are three important speeds for takeoff, which we have configured earlier when programming the MCDU 's PERF page for takeoff. These are shown on the PFD 's speed tape.

V 1 : The speed beyond which takeoff should no longer be aborted. V 1 is depicted as a cyan "1" next to the speedband in the PFD .

V R : Rotation speed. The speed at which the pilot begins to apply control inputs to cause the aircraft nose to pitch up, after which it will leave the ground. V R is depicted as a cyan circle next to the speedband in the PFD .

V 2 : Takeoff safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft may safely climb with one engine inoperative. V 2 is depicted by a magenta triangle next to the speedband in the PFD .

On a long enough runway, V 1 (depicted by "1") and V R (depicted by "o") are often very close together and can't be clearly distinguished on the PFD speed tape.

At about 80 knots, slowly release the forward pressure on the sidestick until about 100 knots, when the sidestick should be in the neutral position.

The throttle hand remains on the thrust levers until reaching V 1 to be able to quickly abort the start. Remove the hand from the thrust levers at V 1 to avoid accidentally aborting after V 1 .

At V R apply smooth positive backward stick movement on the sidestick and aim for a rotation rate (pitch rate) of 3 deg/sec for about 5 seconds (15° - 18° pitch attitude). Once airborne, follow the flight director's guidance for pitch attitude. Tip: Count one-one thousand, two-one-thousand, etc. and hit 15 degrees at five-one-thousand - practice this.

Once we have confirmed "positive climb" we retract the landing gear.

We confirm that the landing gear is up by looking at the landing gear annunciators, and the lower ECAM Wheels page.

This concludes Takeoff .

• Aircraft has left the ground and is climbing at about 15°.
• Gear is up.
• Thrust levers are in FLX MCT or TO GA detent.
• Flaps are still in T.O. position.

After takeoff, the aircraft will use FLX/MCT or TO GA thrust until thrust reduction altitude is reached (typically ~ 1500 ft above runway, this is part of the MCDU setup)

After reaching thrust reduction altitude, the PFD FMA now shows a flashing LVR CLB message to instruct the pilot to move thrust levers to the CL detent.

Pull the throttle back into the CL detent.

This activates the Autothrust system ( FMA shows A/THR in white now). In the A320 (and most Airbus models) we will not touch the thrust levers again before final approach and landing (under normal flight conditions).

The aircraft will now climb to the altitude selected in the FCU (in our case, 5.000ft).

Activate the Autopilot at this point by pressing the AP1 button on the FCU .

The FMA now shows AP1 in white in the upper-right corner.

FCU Autopilot Controls

The FCU (Flight Control Unit) shows three important values:

• SPD "---" : means the Autopilot is in Managed Speed mode (e.g., 250 kt < 10 000 ft, 290 kt above). If we pull the SPD knob we can select a speed which the Autopilot will then apply.
• HDG "---" : means the lateral navigation is in Managed HDG Mode and the Autopilot follows the planned route. Dialing the HDG knob will let us select a heading and by pulling the knob we tell the Autopilot to fly this heading (Selected Heading Mode).
• ALT "5000" : means the selected altitude is 5000 ft

When reaching S-speed retract flaps. S-speed is signified with an S next to the speed band in the PFD .

Flaps during takeoff and climb

Depending on the start configuration, there will be different markers next to the speedband in the PFD to show when to retract flaps:

• CONF-2 (Flaps position 2): At "F" and positive speed trend
• CONF-1+F (Flaps position 1): At "S" and positive speed trend

We always retract flaps by only one step at a time. So, when we took off with FLAPS 2 ( CONF-2 ) we retract FLAPS at "F" to FLAPS 1 . Then at "S" we retract them to FLAPS 0 .

The TAXI and RWY TURN OFF lights are automatically switched off when the landing gear is retracted. The flight crew should still move the switches to the OFF position as part of after take off flows.

We do this in case the auto-turn-off has failed. This would mean the lights sitting on the front gear, which are now within the gear housing, will start increasing in temperature.

Lastly, we disarm the SPEED BRAKE and turn on the PACKS if we turned them off for takeoff.

Now complete the "After takeoff checklist"

• Landing gear up
• Flaps retracted
• Check Baro setting: above transition altitude (defined in the ECAM PERF page) set it to STD by pulling the baro knob. A flashing baro value in the PFD will remind us in case we forgot.

This is usually a good time to contact ATC Departure to check in with your current altitude. In most cases, ATC will now give us a higher climb altitude. If we did not receive a higher altitude, we have to level off at the previously cleared altitude (cleared by ATC or navigational charts). If we have the Autopilot activated, it will level off automatically at the Selected Altitude.

This concludes the Initial Climb .

• Aircraft is climbing to or is at our initially cleared climb altitude.
• After takeoff checklist is completed.
• ATC has given us clearance for further climb.

Dial the newly cleared altitude into the FCU . (e.g., 15 000 ft) and push for managed climb (CLB) or pull for open climb (OP CLB)

The aircraft will now continue climbing while managing thrust and pitch level. The Autopilot ensures that the aircraft stays at the Selected or Managed Speed setting and climbs to the new altitude while managing thrust automatically.

Thrust level is THR CLB , vertical mode is CLB (ALT mode armed), lateral mode is NAV.

Typically, the climb to the flight plan's cruise level (e.g., FL210) happens in several steps (step climbs). Each to be instructed and cleared by ATC.

It is not recommended to use V/S for climbing or descending in the A320 (at least not for beginners) as the V/S guidance has priority over the speed guidance, and speed needs to be watched very closely when using V/S.

Passing 10,000ft Turn off and retract the landing lights and when the aircraft is stable (weather, no turn, etc.) you can turn off the seatbelt signs. The aircraft will now accelerate to CLB speed (defined in MCDU PERF CLB page).

Repeat the climb process above until cruise level (e.g., FL240) is reached.

MCDU and PFD at cruise level:

This concludes the Climb .

• Aircraft has leveled off at planned cruise level.
• Speed is cruise speed as per ECAM PERF CRZ page.
• Autopilot is ON.
• Speed is in Managed Mode.

This is usually the quietest time of the flight. It allows time to double-check the systems by going through all ECAM pages, etc.

Regular ATC frequency changes with altitude and position check-ins are common.

Here are some typical activities which might happen during cruise mostly on request from ATC or other circumstances like weather, traffic, etc.

Altitude change (also called flight level change) Like before, during climb, set your new altitude in the FCU and push the ALT knob. The aircraft will descent or climb to the new altitude automatically.

Course change with Selected Heading (given or cleared by ATC) Dial heading knob to the desired heading and pull knob for Selected Heading Mode. The aircraft will automatically change course to the new heading. If you want the aircraft to follow the planned route again, you can push the knob for Managed Heading Mode.

Direct course to a waypoint (DIR TO) ATC regularly instructs us to go "direct to (waypoint) XYZ". Use the ECAM DIR page to select the waypoint from the flight plan's list of waypoints. In rare cases it is a waypoint not in the current flight plan, then you can enter a new waypoint in the MCDU and put it into the upper left entry field. Select DIRECT* on the right-bottom to execute the change.

ATC requests specific speed Sometimes ATC requests a specific speed to keep separation between aircraft. Pull the speed knob to switch to Selected Speed Mode. The current speed will be preselected. Dial to the desired speed. The aircraft will immediately begin to target the new speed by either increasing or decreasing thrust.

At some point (200 - 300 NM from destination) we would start with descent-planning and setting up the aircraft for descent and approach.

Descent, Approach, and Landing will be covered in later chapters of this beginner guide.

This concludes the Cruise .

Continue with Descent Planning and Descent

Flight Phases Explained: From Takeoff to Landing

The phase of flight refers to a period within a flight. Each phase of flight has its own set of procedures and tasks that must be completed before the aircraft can move on to the next stage.

Parking: Parking phase ends and starts when the aircraft respectively begins or stops moving forward under its own power.

Learn More: The 10 Flight Phases of A320 Aircraft

Taxi: Taxi phase includes both taxi-out and taxi-in. Taxi-out starts when the aircraft begins moving forward under its own power and ends when it reaches the takeoff position. Taxi-in normally starts after the landing roll-out, when the aircraft taxis to the parking area. It may, in some cases, follow a taxi-out.

Takeoff run: Takeoff run phase begins when the crew increases thrust for the purpose of lift-off. It ends when an initial climb is established or the crew aborts its takeoff.

Aborted takeoff: Aborted takeoff phase starts when the crew reduces thrust during the takeoff run to stop the aircraft. It ends when the aircraft is stopped or when it is taxied off the runway.

Initial climb: Initial climb phase begins at 35 feet above the runway elevation. It normally ends with the climb to cruise. It may, in some instances, be followed by an approach.

Climb to cruise: Climb to cruise phase begins when the crew establishes the aircraft at a defined speed and configuration enabling the aircraft to increase altitude for the cruise. It normally ends when the aircraft reaches cruise altitude. It may, in some cases end with the initiation of a descent.

Cruise: Cruise phase begins when the aircraft reaches the initial cruise altitude. It ends when the crew initiates a descent for the purpose of landing.

Initial descent: Initial descent phase starts when the crew leaves the cruise altitude in order to land. It normally ends when the crew initiates changes in the aircraft’s configuration and/or speed in view of the landing. It may, in some cases end with a cruise or climb to cruise phase.

Approach: Approach phase starts when the crew initiates changes in the aircraft’s configuration and/or speed in view of the landing. It normally ends when the aircraft is in the landing configuration and the crew is dedicated to land on a particular runway. It may, in some cases, end with the initiation of an initial climb or go-around phase.

Go-around: Go-around phase begins when the crew aborts the descent to the planned landing runway during the approach phase. It ends with the initiation of an initial climb or when speed and configuration are established at a defined altitude.

Landing: Landing phase begins when the aircraft is in the landing configuration and the crew is dedicated to land on a particular runway. It ends when the aircraft’s speed is decreased to taxi speed.

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Cruise Conditions

There are four forces that act on an aircraft in flight: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. From Newton’s first law of motion we know that an object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion (constant velocity) will stay in motion unless acted on by an external force. If there is no net external force, the object will maintain a constant velocity. In an ideal situation, the forces acting on an aircraft in flight can be in equilibrium and produce no net external force. In this situation the lift is equal to the weight, and the thrust is equal to the drag. This flight condition is called a  cruise condition  for the aircraft. While the weight decreases due to fuel burned, the change is very small relative to the total aircraft weight. The aircraft maintains a constant airspeed called the  cruise velocity . Except during take-off, the Wright brothers’ powered aircraft spent most of the flight time in a cruise condition.

If we take into account the relative velocity of the wind, we can determine the ground speed of a cruising aircraft. The ground speed is equal to the airspeed plus the wind speed (vector addition). The motion of the aircraft is a pure translation. With a constant ground speed it is relatively easy to determine the  aircraft range , the distance the airplane can fly with a given load of fuel.

If the forces on the aircraft become unbalanced, the aircraft moves in the direction of the greater force, and we can compute the acceleration of the aircraft from Newton’s second law of motion (F = m a).

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The Keys to Cruise Flight Safety

What should be the safest phase of flight claims too many general aviation pilots..

Accidents during cruise are almost unheard of in turbine airplanes where the risk is concentrated in the departure and arrival phases of flight. General aviation pilots also come to grief most frequently in the airport vicinity, but an alarming number of accidents happen during cruise, which should be a benign part of any trip.

Most serious accidents in cruise involve bad weather. The less serious events usually are caused by a loss of power, typically because there is no fuel on board, or the fuel that is there isn’t reaching the engine. And there are several accidents every year that remain total mysteries. In these cases the pilot is usually flying VFR, not in contact with controllers, and the wreckage is found sometime later after a search is launched when the airplane is reported missing. That type of crash leaves very few clues to determine a probable cause.

Twenty to 30 years ago the so-called continued VFR accident was among the most common type of serious crash. The non-instrument rated pilot would plunge ahead into deteriorating weather conditions and be forced to fly lower and lower to stay out of the clouds until he flew into something he could no longer see.

The FAA and general aviation industry believed that expanding the number of instrument rated pilots would solve the continued VFR accident problem. Now well over half of all pilots are IFR rated. The total experience required to earn the rating was reduced and pilots are encouraged to add the IFR rating as soon as possible after earning the private license. Years ago it was the reverse when most would advance to a commercial certificate before tackling instrument training.

Well, the plan worked, but not in a way anyone intended. Now accidents that occur when IFR pilots are flying in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) outnumber the classic continued VFR accident. And the results of a loss of control in the clouds are almost always fatal while the scud-running VFR pilot does have a chance to put it down somewhere before losing all contact with the ground.

Avoiding a continued VFR accident is the easiest thing in the world because you have a continuous real-time weather report right in front of you. It’s the windshield. No matter what the forecast says, no matter what weather stations are reporting, the only weather report that matters to a VFR pilot is what you see out the windshield.

When pilots used to routinely fly long trips VFR the experienced among them developed rules for when to call it quits. For example, over flat lands if you never cruise below 1,000 feet your chances of survival are good. Obstacles such as antennas are still a problem, but they are well charted and if you land before visibility drops you will be able to see and avoid obstacles.

Over lumpy terrain the smart pilot won’t continue if he can’t see at least the next two, or better three, ridge lines ahead. If visibility drops to the point that you can only see the next ridge to cross, you have no way of knowing if the hill behind that is hidden in the clouds. But when you can see multiple ridges you know you can continue, and better still, know that there is enough visibility to turn around when you can see the ridges ahead.

Of course scud running in the high mountains of the west is just plain suicide. The terrain is often so steep, and the valleys so deep, that there is no escape and no way to see beyond the peaks.

But flying IFR in IMC is different. You shouldn’t need to see the ground or a horizon to control the airplane, but there are clouds that can make it very demanding to maintain control of a general aviation airplane. Thunderstorms and ice are the two big worries for every IFR pilot, but there are turbulent clouds that can toss piston singles and twins around without being convective.

I am lucky enough to get to fly both jets and piston airplanes, and in a bumpy cloud it is much easier to control a jet with its higher wing loading. Turbulence that makes the piston airplane wallow and roll is usually converted into short, sharp jolts by the speed and high wing loading of the jet. The rapidly rising air of a mountain wave or unstable cloud can push the light airplane up, and then down, for long periods while the pilot has to fly unnatural pitch attitudes to maintain assigned altitude. But those phenomenon are barely noticeable in a jet.

Nobody knows for sure how big a part turbulence plays in the loss of control by IFR pilots, but I suspect it is large. Flying IFR in smooth stratus clouds is easy because the airplane deviates little from straight and level. But in big bumps flying IFR in a light airplane you must perform an almost continuous upset recovery maneuver because the airplane can easily be displaced by many degrees of pitch and roll before you can move the controls to correct back.

The best way to maintain control in IMC in cruise is to have an autopilot and use it. No matter how bumpy it gets the autopilot is making corrections instantly. It takes time for the airplane to respond to the control inputs, but the autopilot doesn’t become disoriented. For some reason many general aviation pilots don’t rely on their autopilots enough and even turn them off when they are most useful, such as in a bumpy cloud or on a low approach. That’s just backwards. Turning the autopilot off in bad weather conditions would be like kicking the copilot out of a jet when things got bad. You want all of the help you can get.

The old advice on autopilot use in turbulence was to turn off the altitude hold function and let the airplane move up and down. That was probably a good technique except many modern autopilots hold a set pitch attitude no matter whether altitude hold mode is engaged or not. So, it doesn’t matter whether the autopilot is holding a target pitch attitude, or an altitude, the result is the same in turbulence, so you may as well leave it in altitude hold mode. The autopilot will use some rather large pitch changes to hold altitude or attitude so you need to monitor airspeed and adjust power to keep the speed under control. It’s vital to fully understand how your autopilot functions because there are wide differences from one system to another.

Of course, the autopilot systems in most general aviation airplanes are single string, meaning that there are several points where failure disables the whole system. For example, there is only one computer, and if it quits, the whole system goes down. There are only single servos to move the control surfaces in each axis. And so on. As good as autopilots are, the human remains the backup for them and needs to be ready to take over.

The most important part of maintaining control in turbulent clouds is to work hard at keeping the wings level. It is virtually impossible to lose control when the wings are level because the stability of the airplane keeps trying to bring the pitch attitude back to match the trimmed airspeed. If you don’t believe me, try pushing or pulling on the controls with the wings level in VFR conditions. It will take a great deal of effort on the controls to make big changes in the airspeed in either direction. Now try the same thing in a steep bank and you will find that pulling hard without feeding in opposite aileron only steepens the bank and increases airspeed. In a steep bank any release of back pressure on the wheel will allow the nose to drop and increase airspeed. That’s why loss of control in the clouds invariably leads to a spiral dive at very high speed, sometimes enough to break the airframe.

In addition to using the autopilot for IFR cruise it’s also wise to have satellite weather capability in the cockpit. Unlike the VFR pilot who gets the instant weather report through the windshield, the IFR pilot needs help to know what kind of clouds are ahead. Avoiding thunderstorms and lightning are obvious benefits of satellite weather information, but airmets, sigmets and metars from airports ahead all help.

I have to admit that I didn’t pay a whole lot of attention to airmets before I started flying with XM Weather, and now WSI/Avidyne, too. It was so hard to visualize the boundaries of an airmet for turbulence, for example, when you read or heard that it went from “30 nm northeast of ACY to 20 nm south of HUO and … ” But now that I see the airmets outlined on the moving map, I pay attention. And the airmets for turbulence are much more accurate than I ever believed. You can fly through annoying bumps when there is no airmet issued, but it is rare to see an airmet for turbulence and not find bumps in that airspace.

It would be hard to travel far on many days without encountering an airmet for turbulence at the piston airplane altitudes, but to be informed is to be ready. If you are not confident in your instrument skills, or your autopilot is unreliable or not working, I would not fly in clouds within the boundaries of an airmet for turbulence. Of course a sigmet for turbulence should send all light airplanes in the other direction. Sigmets for turbulence are uncommon and predict conditions that are a safety threat to airplanes of all sizes and capabilities.

The other big threat to cruise flight safety — loss of power — is mostly, but not entirely, in our control. Though it is true that the majority of forced landings are caused by fuel problems, engines can and do occasionally break mechanically. The true sudden failure of an engine is quite rare and is often the result of a mistake when the engine was overhauled or maintained. Typically an engine will send out signals to the attentive pilot that it has a problem before a total loss of power occurs.

The best protection against mechanical engine failure is to abide by all maintenance instructions and fly frequently. Everything in an airplane lasts longer and operates better when it is used regularly, and that is particularly true of engines. An engine that sits can be attacked by corrosion and other forms of decay. The longer a period between flights the more time birds and even insects have to plug something up. And non-wearing items such as hoses and wires decay over time as an engine sits.

But the huge problem of fuel exhaustion can be solved by pilot discipline and the routine use of computerized flight planning systems. Flight planning discipline requires a pilot to be conservative in predicting fuel flow and in knowing the actual fuel load before takeoff.

In most piston airplanes the fuel gauges should be used as confirmation of fuel on board after you have determined the actual fuel level some other way. For example, looking in the cap and seeing the fuel level brimming is concrete evidence the tank is full and the gauge should agree. Another reliable means in many airplanes are fixed tabs visible in the tank that show a partial fuel level, and the gauge should agree. Another means is the meter on the fuel truck or pump. These are very accurate and you know you have at least that number of gallons on board and the gauges should agree.

I have heard many general aviation pilots over the years say that the fuel gauges in piston airplanes just aren’t accurate and should be ignored. I don’t agree. If the fuel gauge says full, or some substantial level, I won’t believe it without independent confirmation before takeoff. But if the gauge shows empty, I will believe it and get to a runway. Who knows how many hapless pilots have run out of gas with gauges showing empty but they refused to believe what the gauge said because “it is unreliable.”

The typical float-type fuel level sensor in a piston airplane is designed so that it shows empty if there is a failure. For example, if a wire frays, or the sensor itself fails, the gauge is designed to show empty even if there is plenty of fuel. The gauges are also usually calibrated with the tanks empty so that is their most accurate reading. There could, of course, be some type of failure that would cause a fuel gauge to show more fuel than is in the tank and that’s why I always believe them when they say empty, but never believe them totally when they show full.

But you almost don’t need fuel gauges if you know, as you should, the actual fuel on board at takeoff, and the fuel flow. Then it is just a matter of keeping track of the time and building in at least one hour of normal cruise power fuel flow for reserve. There are many excellent flight planning systems that will automatically consult the winds aloft forecast and calculate your flight time with near perfection for either an IFR or VFR flight. There are excellent free flight planning systems on FltPlan.com and either DUAT provider. I use FltPlan.com and find its precision almost spooky. I just flew my Baron to Oshkosh and back the following day and FltPlan.com pegged trip time within one minute both directions, even though going out took more than four hours, and there were substantial changes in the wind along the route. I have found that five minutes on a flight of several hours is a “big” miss that doesn’t happen very often unless weather or ATC deviations are encountered.

With such reliable flight planning at your fingertips the only way to not know your total fuel needs for the flight is to not know, or be too optimistic, about fuel flow. The best way to plan fuel burn is to build in extra for the first hour to account for start, taxi and climb. After that fuel flow in a piston should be pretty consistent for each hour. In turbine airplanes the fuel burn in subsequent hours can be substantially lower because the airplane becomes lighter and needs less power to maintain the target airspeed. The weight of fuel burned in piston airplanes is not normally enough to make a noticeable difference in the third, fourth or additional hours of a flight.

With your computer-generated flight plan in hand, and conservative fuel flows in the calculation, the only reason to consult the fuel gauges is to make sure your tanks haven’t sprung a leak. It is possible that something could fail causing fuel to go overboard, or for the engine to burn substantially more than predicted or shown on the fuel flow gauges, so if the gauges say the tanks are near empty, I’m still going to land and check it out.

Bottom line to safety in cruise is constant monitoring. By staying ahead of changes in the weather, and keeping close track of fuel burned and fuel remaining, you have defeated the big risks involved in the time spent flying between airports. Pilots of turbine airplanes have tamed the risk of cruise flight, and piston pilots can come close to doing the same with conservative planning and careful execution of the plan.

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Optimization of the Altitude and Speed Profile of the Aircraft Cruise with Fixed Arrival Time

• NONLINEAR SYSTEMS
• Published: 24 August 2021
• Volume 82 , pages 1169–1182, ( 2021 )

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• V. A. Alexandrov 1 ,
• E. Yu. Zybin 2 ,
• V. V. Kosyanchuk 2 ,
• N. I. Selvesyuk 2 ,
• A. A. Tremba 1 &
• M. V. Khlebnikov 1  

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We consider the problem of minimizing the fuel consumption of subsonic passenger and transport aircraft at the cruise flight phase. An optimization problem is stated to form the altitude and speed flight profile. It is proposed to solve this problem by the coordinate descent method (taking into account the constraints) combined with the use of a set of auxiliary candidate points. The calculation of fuel consumption as an objective function of optimization is realized by numerical modeling with a fixed step for speed and altitude transients and by a simplified calculation of the per second consumption based on the static equations on flight intervals with constant speed and altitude.

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Optimal Fuel Consumption Trajectories of a Civil Supersonic Aircraft

Research and Optimization of Aircraft’s Cruising Flight Stage in Civil Aviation in the Vertical Navigation Problem

Flight Trajectory Optimization for Modern Jet Passenger Aircraft with Dynamic Programming

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors express their gratitude to B.T. Polyak and N.V. Kulanov for valuable advice when preparing this paper.

This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation, project no. 21-71-30005.

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Trapeznikov Institute of Control Sciences, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117997, Russia

V. A. Alexandrov, A. A. Tremba & M. V. Khlebnikov

State Research Institute of Aviation Systems, Moscow, 125167, Russia

E. Yu. Zybin, V. V. Kosyanchuk & N. I. Selvesyuk

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Correspondence to V. A. Alexandrov , E. Yu. Zybin , V. V. Kosyanchuk , N. I. Selvesyuk , A. A. Tremba or M. V. Khlebnikov .

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Alexandrov, V.A., Zybin, E.Y., Kosyanchuk, V.V. et al. Optimization of the Altitude and Speed Profile of the Aircraft Cruise with Fixed Arrival Time. Autom Remote Control 82 , 1169–1182 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0005117921070031

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Received : 23 November 2020

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Accepted : 16 March 2021

Published : 24 August 2021

Issue Date : July 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1134/S0005117921070031

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Rayner Leyva

• June 13, 2023

Stages of flight of an aircraft: Everything you need to know

• Ultima Actualización: June 13, 2023

In the exciting world of aviation we generally take two points of view: on the one hand, the performance of the aircraft in flight and, on the other hand, the maintenance work performed when the aircraft is on the ground.

However, these two points of view leave aside a process that often seems simple, but is essential and involves all members of the aeronautical family: we are talking about the stages of flight of an aircraft .

For this reason, today at 360 Aviation Life we will talk about the different phases of flight of an aircraft , from the aircraft start-up to the final checks , listing also each of the agents involved in them together with their respective roles.

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Table of Contents

What are the stages of flight of an aircraft.

So let’s start by defining exactly what we call the stages of flight of an aircraft . This is the name given to the different phases of an aircraft’s flight .

The personnel involved in each of these stages will depend on whether the airport is controlled or operated from an uncontrolled aerodrome . In the first case, there are air traffic controllers , also known as ATC , for each phase in the flight. If, on the other hand, you are operating in an uncontrolled aerodrome , it is up to the pilots to communicate their intentions and positions at all times.

Likewise, there are some more conventional flight stages of aircraft , such as landing or taxiing , and others that are less frequent or involve more specific types of flight , such as a holding phase or dropping a load .

However, what actually defines what the phases of flight of an aircraft will be is the mission profile , which we will see immediately below.

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Mission profile

Now that we know exactly what the stages of flight of an aircraft are, we have to talk about what in the aviation world we call the “ mission profile “. This refers to a detailed description of the specific stages and actions to be carried out during an air mission .

This profile provides structured guidance for pilots and flight crew , indicating the procedures and parameters necessary to achieve mission objectives safely and efficiently. It also includes information such as the planned flight path , flight altitudes , important landmarks , communications, and navigation procedures .

The mission profile is developed by the aircraft operators , taking into account factors such as weather conditions , the aircraft weight and balance , airspace restrictions and operational requirements . By following the mission profile, pilots can stay on track and ensure that all actions are performed safely and effectively during flight.

As mentioned above, the stages or phases of an aircraft flight will depend largely on the type of flight , the type of airfield or airport used, and the Mission Profile of the flight.

For reasons of time and space, we will concentrate on the 7 most common flight stages and always assume that these are controlled airports . Therefore, keep in mind that there are other stages of flight of an aircraft and that the personnel involved are not the same in an uncontrolled airfield. With all these factors in mind, let’s start with the first of the phases of flight of an aircraft.

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Taxiing is the first of the stages of flight of an aircraft . This is the process in which the aircraft begins to move on the ground , for example, on a runway or parking lot . Contrary to popular belief, the phases of flight of an aircraft begin when the aircraft begins to move , and not necessarily when it reaches altitude.

During taxiing, pilots follow the directions of the air traffic controllers and signs at the airport . They check aircraft systems, adjust flaps and control surfaces, and communicate with the control tower to obtain takeoff clearance.

Briefly, the personnel involved in this stage of an aircraft’s flight and their respective functions can be listed as follows:

• Pilots: Verification of systems, adjustment of controls and communication with the control tower.
• Air Traffic Controllers (ATC): Supervision and coordination of aircraft movement on the ground.
• Ground personnel: Supervision and assistance in taxiing the aircraft.

Probably one of the best-known of the stages of flight of an aircraft, the take-off is the phase in which the aircraft accelerates from zero speed to the speed necessary to rise to a certain altitude for take-off .

In general, for windless takeoffs over commercial aircraft runways, this altitude is taken as 35 feet or 10 meters but varies according to the type of flight and the class of aircraft involved.

Obviously, pilots are the backbone of this phase , but ATC and ground personnel continue their supervisory and coordinating roles during this stage, so we should never dismiss them or take their work as secondary.

Climb or Ascention

As the name implies, the objective of this stage of an aircraft’s flight is to reach the altitude at which the aircraft will begin cruise flight . During the ascent, pilots follow a specific trajectory to gain altitude and stabilize the aircraft , performing a series of tasks such as adjust the flaps and the landing gear to carry out the necessary verifications in the systems and communicate with ATCs , who will supervise and guide the aircraft during the ascent.

In addition, during this phase they must be aware of some parameters that are constantly changing such as, for example, the air density the aircraft weight and the fuel consumption This is one of the stages of flight of an aircraft that demands the most attention from both pilots and ATC.

During the Cruise phase , pilots establish a constant cruising altitude and speed , which balances the four main forces (drag/thrust and lift/weight).

However, the altitude at which this flight stage will be performed may be determined by the flight plan (in the case of an instrument flight ), or it may be at the pilot’s discretion (in the case of a VFR flight ).

This is another of the stages of flight of an aircraft that requires maximum attention from pilots , who must perform periodic system checks , monitor the aircraft’s performance and follow the planned flight path .

Descent or Decrease

As everything that goes up has to come down, one of the stages of flight of an airplane is the Descent , also known as “ Decrease “. This is a basic maneuver in which the aircraft begins to lose altitude in a controlled manner by flying in a downward trajectory .

This is nothing more nor less than the phase that connects the end of the cruise flight with the beginning of the approach to the destination airport , so it could be said that this is the stage that implies the beginning of the end of any flight.

Although it could be taken as a flight stage attached to the Descent, we prefer to separate the Approach and take it as a separate phase.

This is because it is the preparation of the landing of the aircraft prior to the authorization of the control tower, if it is a controlled airport. Otherwise, the pilot must communicate his position and intentions by the available radio frequency.

In the absence of immediate clearance to land , the aircraft may conduct what is known as a “ holding circuit ,” in which the aircraft is flown on a standardized circuit specified on aeronautical navigation charts until ATC gives permission to land .

The last of the stages of flight of an aircraft , the Landing , as its name indicates, is the moment when the aircraft approaches the destination airport and prepares to land on the runway assigned by the control tower .

In this last phase of flight, the landing gear will make contact with the runway, while the aircraft decelerates until it reaches speed 0 or enough to taxi to the parking position.

As we have seen, the stages of flight of an airplane have their “intuitive” parts for anyone, even if they are not familiar with the world of aviation. However, these phases are not merely reduced to take-off and landing but form a complex process involving many members of the aviation family .

For this reason, knowing the stages or phases of an aircraft’s flight is essential not only because it constitutes a basic knowledge for the industry but also because involve all members of the great aviation family Therefore, it is extremely important that each of them has a clear understanding of their role and function in each of these stages.

At 360 Aviation Life we can give you the training you need to enter the world of aviation and take part in some of the phases of aircraft flight. Discover our training courses and acquire the skills you need to take off in your career. Sign up now and get ready to challenge the limits of gravity!

IBM – Mission profile configuration .

Sociedad Aeronáutica Española – The phases of a flight, beyond takeoff and landing .

Frequently Asked Questions

The stages of flight of an aircraft refer to the different phases that an aircraft goes through during its flight. These stages may include taxiing, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, approach and landing.

What is the mission profile of an aircraft flight?

An aircraft flight mission profile is a detailed description of the specific steps and actions to be carried out during an air mission. It includes information such as the planned flight path, flight altitudes, important landmarks, communications and navigation procedures. Helps pilots and flight crew achieve mission objectives safely and efficiently.

Why are the stages of flight of an aircraft important in aviation training?

The stages of aircraft flight are fundamental in aviation training because they provide a complete understanding of the different aspects and procedures involved in the flight of an aircraft. Knowing and mastering these stages is essential to ensure the safe and efficient handling of the aircraft during each phase of the flight.

What are the specific stages of an aircraft’s flight?

The specific stages of an aircraft’s flight may vary, but the most common include taxiing, take-off, climb, cruise, descent, approach and landing. Each stage has its own characteristics and operational requirements that must be mastered by pilots and flight crew.

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• Important Data on ILS Charts
• LPV Explanation - I
• LPV Explanation - II
• LPV Explanation - III

Topic: Flight Phases

This topic is about the different flight phases in the A320 aircraft. It covers both, FMGS and FWC phases.

Some features here depend on FMS manufacturer (Thales and Honeywell) and may vary between them.

FMGS Flight Phases

The vertical flightplan is divided into flight phases. For each phase, FMGS computes the optimum speed or Mach profile.

It is important to understand these flight phases as they have an impact on planning a flight as well as on the lateral and vertical guidance of the aircraft.

The most prominent place where these phases become visible are the MCDU PERF pages where all phases, apart from PREFLIGHT and DONE, have their own page.

Quick Overview

During the preflight phase, the flight crew inserts the flight plan, which includes all data needed for the flight.

PREFLIGHT Phase

During the PREFLIGHT phase the pilot initializes the Flight Management Guidance Computer (FMGC) and sets up various systems in the aircraft.

Flight planning and performance planning happen during this phase.

TAKEOFF Phase

The TAKEOFF phase starts when applying take off thrust (FLX or TOGA) and extends until reaching the acceleration altitude.

Autopilot can be engaged at 100ft above ground or 5 seconds ofter takeoff, whichever is later.

At thrust reduction altitude the thrust levers are normally set in the climb thurst detent (CL detent). The FMGC is in managed mode at this point guiding the aircraft vertically and laterally along the flight plan.

CLIMB Phase

The CLIMB phase extends from the acceleration altitude to the top of climb (ToC) cruise flight level (displayed and modifiable on the MCDU PROG page).

The FMS guides the aircraft and commands acceleration when above the terminal area speed restriction altitude.

The system observes speed/altitude constraints that have been entered in the flight plan.

When all managed modes have been selected and confirmed, the FMS gives speed, altitude, and lateral guidance during climb.

CRUISE Phase

The CRUISE phase extends from the top of climb (ToC) point to the top of descent (ToD) point.

It may also includes intermediate climbs as well as en route descents. At anytime, the pilot can define a step climb to determine the cost and time savings of flying at a different flight level. Step climbs and descents are entered on the MCDU STEP ALTS page which is accessed from a VERT REV page or from the MCDU F-PLN page A.

The FMS transitions to the descent phase when a subsequent descent is initiated within 200 NM of the destination and no preplanned step descent exists in front of the aircraft.

DESCENT Phase

The DESCENT phase starts at the top--of--descent point (which is less than 200 NM from destination) by pushing the ALT knob for a managed descent or pulling the ALT knob for an open or selected descent from the cruise altitude.

The pilot is required to confirm and initiate all descents from cruise altitude by pushing or pulling the ALT knob on the FCU. The managed descent does not occur until the pilot initiates the descent following clearance from ATC.

APPROACH Phase

The APPROACH phase starts when the pilot activates and confirms the approach on the PERF descent page, or when the approach deceleration pseudo waypoint (DECEL) is passed and the aircraft is below 9500 ft AGL in managed flight.

GO-AROUND Phase

The GO-AROUND phase is activated when the thrust levers are moved to the TOGA position while in the APPROACH phase. The FMS then guides the aircraft through the missed approach procedure.

To return to the APPROACH flight phase, activate and confirm the APPROACH phase on the PERF GO-AROUND page.

The DONE phase is activated after the aircraft has been on the ground for at least 30 seconds and all engines are shut down.

During the done phase, the FMS clears the active flight plan in preparation for reinitialization.

Credits: FBW

FWC Flight Phases

Flight phase inhibitions.

Depending on the flight phase, certain ECAM warnings/cautions are inhibited. There is a T/O Inhibit - LDG Inhibit and a Landing Inhibit phase.

The Takeoff Inhibit phase starts actually when the first engine reaches takeoff power until the aircraft reaches 1500 ft AGL (or 2 minutes after takeoff). The Memo Message T.O. Inhibit is displayed on the E/WD.

The Landing Inhibit phase starts at 800 ft AGL and stays active until the aircraft reaches 80 kts after landing. The message LDG Inhibit is displayed on the E/WD.

Takeoff-Inhibit Phase 4

In the Takeoff-Inhibit Phase 4 only the follwing Malfunctions are not inhibited:

Red Warnings

• ENG 1 (2) Fire
• ENG 1 (2) OIL LO PR
• ENG DUAL FAILURE
• F/CTL L+R ELEV FAULT
• CONFIG WARNING

Amber Cautions

• ENG 1 (2) FAIL
• ENG 1 (2) SHUTDOWN
• ENG 1 (2) REV UNLOCKED
• ENG 1 (2) THR LEVER FAULT
• F/CTL L (R) SIDESTICK FAULT
• FWS FWC 1 + 2 FAULT

Only for Flight-Simulation!

This article is the second in a series exploring fuel conservation strategies.

This article defines cruise flight, presents various cruise schemes, and outlines the effects of wind on cruise speed calculations. It also discusses the relationship between cruise flight and cost index (CI) which was discussed in the first article in this series, "Fuel Conservation Strategies: Cost Index Explained" in the second-quarter 2007 AERO .

Used appropriately, the CI feature of the flight management computer (FMC) can help airlines significantly reduce operating costs. However, many operators don't take full advantage of this powerful tool.

CRUISE FLIGHT DEFINED

Cruise flight is the phase of flight that falls between climb and descent. The largest percentages of trip time and trip fuel are consumed typically in this phase of flight. As an aside, unanticipated low altitude maneuvering, which also impacts trip time and fuel significantly, can often be avoided through appropriate cruise planning.

The variables that affect the total time and fuel burn are speed selection, altitude selection, and, to some degree, center of gravity (CG). This article focuses on speed selection.

• Maximize the distance traveled for a given amount of fuel (i.e., maximum range).
• Minimize the fuel used for a given distance covered (i.e., minimum trip fuel).
• Minimize total trip time (i.e., minimum time).
• Minimize total operating cost for the trip (i.e., minimum cost, or economy [ECON] speed).
• Maintain the flight schedule.

In This Issue:

Taxonomy Metadata Attributes

Flight phase, flight planning, post-flight, pushback/towing, initial climb, en route climb, ground servicing.

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cruise phase

Quick reference.

A period during a spacecraft's flight in which it undergoes routine on-board operations, such as receiving new command sequences, establishing attitude control, tracking the Earth with its high-gain antenna, and deploying booms and other appendages. The spacecraft also begins collecting data for its mission during this phase.

The cruise phase comes between the launch phase and the encounter phase. It may last only for a few months or for years. At NASA, it is normally managed from the Space Flight Operations Facility at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

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4. Phases of a flight

Image courtesy of Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 4.1 Taxi

Taxiing refers to the movement of an aircraft on the ground, under its own power. The aircraft moves on wheels. An airplane uses taxiways to taxi from one place on an airport to another; for example, when moving from a terminal to the runway.

The aircrafts always moves on the ground following the yellow lines, to avoid any collision with the surrounding buildings, vehicles or other aircrafts. The taxiing motion has a speed limit. Before making a turn, the pilot reduces the speed further to prevent tire skids. Just like cars, there is a certain list of priorities during taxiing. The aircrafts that are landing or taking off have higher priority. The other aircrafts have to wait for these aircrafts before they start or continue taxiing.

The thrust to propel the aircraft forward comes from its propellers or jet engines. Steering is achieved by turning a nose wheel or tail wheel/rudder; the pilot controlling the direction travelled with their feet. The use of engine thrust near terminals is restricted due to the possibility of jet blast damage. This is why the aircrafts are pushed back from the buildings by a vehicle before they can start their own engines for taxiing.

4.2 Take-off

Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aircraft goes through a transition from moving along the ground (taxiing) to flying in the air, usually starting on a runway. Usually the engines are run at full power during takeoff. Following the taxi motion, the aircraft stops at the starting line of the runway. Before takeoff, the engines, particularly piston engines, are routinely run up at high power to check for engine-related problems. This makes a consid- erable noise. When the pilot releases the brakes, the aircraft starts accelerating rapidly until the necessary speed for take-off is achieved.

The takeoff speed required varies with air den- sity, aircraft weight, and aircraft configuration (flap and/or slat position, as applicable). Air density is affected by factors such as field ele- vation and air temperature.

Operations with transport category aircraft employ the concept of the takeoff V-Speeds, V1 and V2. These speeds are determined not only by the above factors affecting takeoff perform- ance, but also by the length and slope of the runway. Below V1, in case of critical failures, the takeoff should be aborted; above V1 the pilot continues the takeoff and returns for land- ing. After the co-pilot calls V1, Then, V2 (the safe takeoff speed) is called. This speed must be maintained after an engine failure to meet per- formance targets for rate of climb and angle of climb.

The speeds needed for takeoff are relative to the motion of the air (indicated airspeed). A head wind will reduce the ground speed needed for takeoff, as there is a greater flow of air over the wings. This is why the aircrafts always take off against the wind. Side wind is not preferred as it would disturb the stability of the aircraft. Typical takeoff air speeds for jetliners are in the 130–155 knot range (150–180 mph, 240–285 km/h). For a given aircraft, the takeoff speed is usually directly proportional to the aircraft weight; the heavier the weight, the greater the speed needed. Some aircraft have difficulty generating enough lift at the low speeds encountered during takeoff. These are therefore fitted with high-lift devices, often including slats and usually flaps, which increase the camber of the wing, making it more effective at low speed, thus creating more lift. These have to be deployed from the wing before performing any maneuver.

At the beginning of the climb phase, the wheels are retracted into the aircraft and the undercarriage doors are closed. This operation is audible by the passengers as a noise coming from below the floor.

Following take-off, the aircraft has to climb to a certain altitude (typically 30,000 ft or 10 km) before it can cruise at this altitude in a safe and economic way. A climb is carried out by increasing the lift of wings supporting the aircraft until their lifting force exceeds the weight of the aircraft. Once this occurs, the aircraft will climb to a higher altitude until the lifting force and weight are again in balance. The increase in lift may be accomplished by increasing the angle of attack of the wings, by increasing the thrust of the engines to increase speed (thereby increasing lift), by increasing the surface area or shape of the wing to produce greater lift, or by some combination of these techniques. In most cases, engine thrust and angle of attack are simultaneously increased to produce a climb.

Because lift diminishes with decreasing air density, a climb, once initiated, will end by itself when the diminishing lift with increasing altitude drops to a point that equals the weight of the aircraft. At that point, the aircraft will return to level flight at a constant altitude. During climb phase, it is normal that the engine noise diminishes. This is because the engines are operated at a lower power level after the take-off. It is also possible to hear a whirring noise or a change in the tone of the noise during climb. This is the sound of the flaps that are retracting. A wing with retracted flap produces less noise.

Cruise is the level portion of aircraft travel where flight is most fuel efficient. It occurs between ascent and descent phases and is usually the majority of a journey. Technically, cruising consists of heading (direction of flight) changes only at a constant airspeed and altitude. It ends as the aircraft approaches the destination where the descent phase of flight commences in preparation for landing.

For most commercial passenger aircraft, the cruise phase of flight consumes the majority of fuel. As this lightens the aircraft considerably, higher altitudes are more efficient for additional fuel economy. However, for operational and air traffic control reasons it is necessary to stay at the cleared flight level. Typical cruising speed for long-distance commercial passenger flights is 475-500 knots (878-926 km/h; 547-578 mph).

Commercial or passenger aircraft are usually designed for optimum performance at their cruise speed. There is also an optimum cruise altitude for a particular aircraft type and conditions including payload weight, center of gravity, air temperature, humidity, and speed. This altitude is usually where the drag is minimum and the lift is maximum. As in any phase of the flight, the aircraft in cruise mode is always in communication with an Air Traffic Control (ATC) station. Although the general tendency is to follow a straight line towards the destination, there may be some deviations from the flight plan for weather, turbulence or air traffic rea- sons, after receiving clearance from ATC.

4.5 Descent

A descent during air travel is any portion where an aircraft decreases altitude. Descents are an essential component of an approach to landing. Other partial descents might be to avoid traffic, poor flight conditions (turbulence or bad weather), clouds (particularly under visual flight rules), to see something lower, to enter warmer air (in the case of extreme cold), or to take advantage of wind direction of a different altitude. Normal descents take place at a con- stant airspeed and constant angle of descent (3 degree final approach at most airports). The pilot controls the angle of descent by varying engine power and pitch angle (lowering the nose) to keep the airspeed constant.

At the beginning of and during the descent phase, the engine noise diminishes further as the engines are operated at low power settings. However, towards the end of the descent phase, the passenger can feel further accelerations and an increase in the noise. This is to realize the “final approach” before taking “landing posi- tion”.

4.6 Landing

Landing is the last part of a flight, where the aircraft returns to the ground. Aircraft usually land at an airport on a firm runway, generally constructed of asphalt concrete, concrete, gravel or grass. To land, the airspeed and the rate of descent are reduced to where the object descends at a slow enough rate to allow for a gentle touch down. Landing is accomplished by slowing down and descending to the runway. This speed reduction is accomplished by reducing thrust and/or inducing a greater amount of drag using flaps, landing gear or speed brakes. As the plane approaches the ground, the pilot will execute a flare (roundout) to induce a gentle landing. Although the pilots are trained to perform the landing operation, there are “Instrument Landing Systems” in most of the airports to help pilots land the aircrafts. An instrument landing system (ILS) is a ground-based instrument approach system that provides precision guid- ance to an aircraft approaching and landing on a runway, using a combination of radio signals and, in many cases, high-intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), such as low ceilings or reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing snow.

At the beginning of the landing phase, the pas- sengers will hear the opening of the doors of the landing gears. As the landing gears are deployed, they will create an additional drag and an additional noise. Immediately after touch-down, the passengers can hear a blowing sound, sometimes with increasing engine sound. This is the engine’s thrust reverses, helping the aircraft to slow down to taxi speeds by redirecting the airflow of the engines for- ward. Once the aircraft is decelerated to low speed, it can taxi to the terminal building.

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Simple Flying

During which flight stages do most accidents occur.

Environmental aspects and ground proximity increase the risk of accidents.

• Over half of all aviation accidents occur during landing, highlighting the complexity and importance of managing descent and environmental factors.
• Takeoff is the second-most common phase for accidents, usually caused by engine blowouts, fires, runway debris, or bird strikes.
• Other phases like approach, initial climb, and cruise are safer due to higher altitude and fewer varying parameters.

Takeoff and landing are two of the most critical phases of flight. Varying parameters, such as airspeed, altitude, and temperature, pose a greater level of risk than a level cruise flight. Moreover, environmental factors around the airport, including winds, significantly affect an aircraft closer to the ground.

Flying is by far the safest mode of travel. Moreover, with technological advancement in the last two decades, aviation has become safer than ever before. Data from the International Air Transport Association (IATA), as highlighted by Statista , suggests that in 2022, there were only 43 accidents and 158 fatalities out of nearly 28 million flights worldwide.

North America and Europe are some of the safest regions. Though extremely rare (relative to the number of flights at any given time), accidents occur occasionally. The data shows that two specific flight phases are responsible for over 60% of all aviation accidents. This article explores the complexities involved in the takeoff and landing phases of the flight to answer why aircraft accidents are more likely to occur during the two phases.

Most accidents occur during landing

Landing is the single most common flight phase for aviation incidents. Data from IATA shows that 53% of all accidents between 2005 and 2023 occurred during the landing phase. Before the most complex phase of flight, pilots must precisely manage their descent to ensure the aircraft remains efficient while initiating the correct descent rate for the comfort and safety of passengers.

During the final approach and landing, pilots must closely monitor all instruments, communicate with air traffic controllers, and observe the environmental conditions at and around the airport. In between all of that, pilots also perform landing checklists to ensure all necessary steps are completed.

The second-most common time for incidents is during takeoff

Accidents during takeoff are the second most, but certainly not close to that of landings. The takeoff phase accounts for 8.5% of all accidents. The takeoff procedure also requires close instrument monitoring as the aircraft moves from the ground to the air and onto cruising altitude in minutes.

Engine blowouts and fires can happen during takeoff when the engine runs at full speed. Environmental factors, such as runway debris and bird strikes, can also cause an accident during the takeoff procedure.

Other phases of flight

The approach, initial climb, and cruise are the following three phases, representing 8.3%, 6.1%, and 4.7% of accidents, respectively. Accidents during taxiing account for 3.2%, while rejected takeoffs account for 1.8% of all accidents between 2005 and 2023.

12 Tips To Survive An Aircraft Accident

It is worth mentioning that phases other than takeoff and landing are further away from the ground and require relatively steady maneuvers. As such, fewer varying parameters exist, and the risk of accidents is reduced. Cruise is one of the safest phases of flight due to the high altitude and minimal weather effects.

What are your thoughts on the various phases of flight with the history of most accidents? Share your experience in the comments section.