travel agency theory

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Travel Behavior and Urban Land Use

Chapter 2 travel behavior theories.

Two different perspectives, individual and collective, can explain travel behavior. When people contextualizing travel as a personal choice or decision-making, the traveler as a subject make mode choices, driving or not. When travel behavior is understood as a social phenomenon, researcher observe and understand the trips as a whole. The two perspectives derived two schools of theory, mode choice and human mobility. In the school of mode choice, travel distance could be treat as an independent variable, a part of travel cost, or could be decided in the next step after mode choice , such as route choice. In the school of human mobility, driving distance grab more attentions.

2.1 Mode Choices (Travel as a subject)

Are ‘decision’ and ‘choice’ the same when discussing travel modes? Literally, a ‘choice’ is one decision given all available options at the same time. While ‘decision’ is a broader concept. A decision could be a schedule with a combination of many choices, such as modes, destination, and activities. A decision related to travel behavior could even include bicycle or car purchase, and relocation. This section will start from the theories of mode choice, then extend to a broader discussion of decision processes.

2.1.1 Rational Choice Theory

For prescriptive, analytical everyday decision-making, rationality is a basic assumption in reasoned behavior or rational choice theories ( Edwards 1954 ; Von Neumann and Morgenstern 1944 ) .

This category is also called ‘Normative Decision Theory,’ which assume people a traveler is an ideal decision maker who are full rational. It requires three necessary steps including information collection, utility evaluation, and choice making.

• Expected Utility Theory (EUT)

Traditional economics focus on the utility evaluation and come up with the Expected Utility Theory (EUT) which is also called Consumer Choice Theory. The rule of EUT is Random Utility Maximization (RUM) ( Ben-Akiva and Lerman 1985 ; McFadden 1973 ) . This classical theory claims that customer always choose the one most appropriate by comparing the advantages and disadvantages of a range of alternatives, evaluating the benefits and costs of each possible outcome. Eventually travelers will select the optimal solution with the maximum ‘utility’ from the choice set.

In real life, Rational Choice Theory can not accurately describe the actual human behavior. Individuals do not often collect and analyse all the relevant information. They are not ‘ideal’ and are not able to calculate the utility for all possible alternatives with perfect accuracy. In many cases, the travel decision is not regarded as the ‘best’ one to achieve travelers’ desired objective. Many other theories were developmed to fix these issues.

2.1.2 Bounded Rational Behavior

Bounded rationality focused on the limitation of self-control ( March and Simon 2005 ) . In reality, individuals are behaving under many constraints including incomplete information, limited time, and cognitive capacity. The observed behaviors often are not optimal and are inconsistent with ‘pure’ rationality. Bounded rationality claims that, when people make decisions under constraints, heuristics and rules of thumb are more common than statistical inference. People are satisfied with a ‘good enough’ decision unless there is a definitively better alternative. The recently witnessed events would have stronger effects on an individual’s decision than others ( Camerer, Loewenstein, and Rabin 2004 ) .

2.1.3 Theory of Planned Behavior

In psychology, many theories and models are developed to explain people’s decision-making processes. 4

Ajzen and Fishbein ( 1977 ) proposed the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) to understand people’s behavioral intentions and actual behaviors. They found two deciding psychological elements as attitudes and subjective norms . Ajzen ( 1991 ) adds a new part of Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) and renames TRA as Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB).

Attitudes are personal evaluation and it means how people prefer or are against performing an activity. For example, a commuter might choose transit in spite of the longer travel time because this person believes that transit is an environment-friendly transport mode.

Subjective norm is the social pressure from others. In the example above, choosing transit is because of other people’s normative expectations rather than personal desirability.

PBC represents some nonvolitional factors such as time, budget, and resources. PBC is assessed by the individual’s perception of ease or difficulty of the behavior. PBC is one reason of the different between intentions and actual behaviors, which is called attitude-behavior gap ( Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002 ; Lane and Potter 2007 ) . In this case, a commuter might choose transit because this person is confident in catching the bus every day.

Based on RUM models, McFadden ( 2001 ) proposes a similar framework called the choice process including attitudes, perception, and preference. This framework is further developed to hybrid choice model (HCM) and non-RUM decision protocols ( Ben-Akiva et al. 2002 ) .

Two meta-analyses found that intentions to drive, perceived behavioral control, habits and past behavior play the primary roles in travel mode choice. Among these factors, PBC have the strongest effects on private car use. People don’t want to reduce the car use because they think it is very inconvenient. The effect of attitudes is modest while subjective norms have weak effect on car use ( Lanzini and Khan 2017 ; Gardner and Abraham 2008 ) .

2.1.4 Prospect Theory

Kahneman and Tversky ( 1979 ) introduced the ProspectTheory 5 to study the impacts of biases. Prospect Theory is a descriptive theory with three main components: First, people are more sensitive to the sure things (e.g., the probability between 0.9 and 1.0, or between 0.0 and 0.1 ), while being indifferent to the middle range (e.g., from 0.45 to 0.55). Second, people care more about the change of overall proportion than the absolute values regardless of gains or losses. Third, people make choice based on a reference point, rather than the overall situation or worth. Economist also extend the theory of expected utility maximization to Behavioral Economics by address the influence of psychology on human behavior.

• Regret Theory

Regret Theory introduces the notions of risk or uncertainty in decisions ( Loomes and Sugden 1982 ) . Psychological studies found that individuals will not only try to maximize the utility but to minimize the anticipation of regret. The fear of regret could affect people’s rational behavior. For example, A high risk of congestion in peak hours could encourage a commuter to choose transit mode. Likewise, a good reputation for punctuality can give traveler confidence in the rail system.

In addition to the traditional utility framework, a regret term is added to address the uncertainty resolution. The utility function on the best alternative outcome will be smaller after subtracting the regret term, which is an increasing, continuous and non-negative function.

• Cognitive Bias

Another psychological factor, cognitive bias can result in judgement errors. For example, people treat potential gains and losses differently, that is called Loss Aversion. Loss Aversion suggests that the negative feeling about losses is greater than the positive response to gains ( Tversky and Kahneman 1992 ) . As a result, individual’s decisions may not be consistent with evidence and tend to pay additional costs to avoid losses.

2.2 Human Mobility (Travel as an object)

2.2.1 trip distribution laws.

There is a long history of human mobility studies. In Physics and Geography, travel distance and pattern are treated as an objective phenomenon. The related theories try to use some statistical expressions to fit the aggregated trip distributions.

Gravity Law is a dominant theory in this field. Scholars have developed some more delicate forms of Gravity Law and found some mathematical relationship to other famous distribution laws. Some theories from different perspectives, like intervening opportunities also show strong ability for explaining travel patterns and regularities.

2.2.1.1 Distance Based Theories

• Law of Migration

An early theory called Law of Migration by Ravenstein ( 1885 ) tried to explain the regional migration patterns. This found is based on observation rather than quantitative analysis. But it capture the fact that the direction of migration is toward the regional center with great commerce and industry. It also pointed out that distance is a primary factor for migrant. This theory inspired many studies on population movement consequently. Even today, socio-economic factors and distance-constraints are the essential parts in the relevant models and frameworks.

Zip’s law is also called discrete Pareto distribution . It is found in linguistics to explain the inverse relationship between the frequency and rank of a word. The charm is that this rank-frequency distribution disclosed a universal law in many realms of society and physics, such as urban size, corporation sizes, cells’ transcriptomes and so on. Zipf interpreted the two competing factors as force of diversification and unification . The former produces larger amount of cases and the later tries to upgrade the rank. An equilibrium of the rank-frequency balance is controlled through a parameter \(\alpha\) in the exponent. For example, a city’s population size \(m\) has a negative power relationship to its rank \(r\) as below. 6

\[ m \sim 1 / r^{\alpha} \]

Zipf ( 1946 ) extended this expression to describe the traffic in both directions between two cities:

\[ t_{ij}\propto \frac{m_i m_j} {d_{ij}} \]

where \(t_{ij}\) represent the traffic flow of goods between two centers \(i\) and \(j\) with population sizes \(m_i\) and \(m_j\) . \(d_{ij}\) is the distance from \(i\) to \(j\) . Because Zipf’s formula has a same form with Newtonian mechanics ( Newton 1848 ) , people call this expression as Gravity Law.

• Gravity Law

As the most influential theory, Gravity Law asserts that the amount of traffic flow between two centers is proportional to the product of their mass and inverse to their distance. The mass is often measured by population size.

\[ p_{ij}\propto m_i m_j f(d_{ij}), \qquad i\ne j \]

where \(p_{ij}\) is the probability of commuting between origin \(i\) and destination \(j\) , satisfying \(\sum_{i,j=1}^n p_{ij}=1\) . \(m_i\) and \(m_j\) are the population of two census units. The travel cost between the two places is represented as a distance decay function of \(d_{ij}\) .

Exponential and power are the two forms of the distance decay function with a parameter \(\lambda\) showed as below:

\[ f(d_{ij})=\exp(-\lambda d_{ij}) \] and

\[ f(d_{ij})={d_{ij}}^{-\lambda} \] The function implies that the movements between the origin and destination decays with their distance. In transportation modeling, a common form of gravity model is :

\[ T_{ij}= \alpha_i O_i \cdot \beta_j D_j \cdot f(d_{ij}) \]

where \(T_{ij}\) is the flow between \(i\) and \(j\) . the two population are replaced by total tirp generation of origin \(O_i\) and total trip attraction of destination \(D_i\) . \(\alpha_i\) and \(\beta_j\) are two constraining parameters to satisfy \(\sum_{i}^{n_i}T_{ij} = D_j\) and \(\sum_{j}^{n_j}T_{ij} = O_i\) . It means that \(\alpha_i = [\sum_{j}^{n_j} \beta_j D_j \cdot f(d_{ij})]^{-1}\) and \(\beta_j = [\sum_{i}^{n_i} \alpha_i O_i \cdot f(d_{ij})]^{-1}\) . Thus, this model is called as doubly constrained gravity model.

If it relieves the two constrains. this model will be simplified to single-constrained and unconstrained gravity model. By assuming \(\alpha\beta\) is an adjustment parameter irrelevant to locations \(i\) and \(j\) for controlling the total flows, this model will not guarantee that the attraction of a destination equals the sum of flow from all origins, and the generation of a origin equals the sum of flow to all destinations.

Broadly speaking, Zipf’s law and Gravity Law have a common essence of power law, or scaling pattern. The Zipfian distribution is one of a family of power-law probability distributions. The power-law distribution also holds in many realms: urban size, population density, street blocks, building heights, etc.

The state-of-the-art studies of human mobility agree that travel behavior follows a power-law distribution at the population level ( Barbosa et al. 2018 ) . An example is Brockmann, Hufnagel, and Geisel ( 2006 ) use dollar bills to track travel habits and confirm this theory. It reflects the fact that both trip and land use, as two geographic variables, follow some Paretian-like distribution. Apparently, it conflicts with Gaussian thinking, the foundation frame of linear models based on the location and scale parameters. 7

Meanwhile, the log-normal distribution may be asymptotically equivalent to a special case of Zipf’s law, which could support the logarithm transform in current VMT-density models ( Saichev, Malevergne, and Sornette 2010 ) .

2.2.1.2 Opportunity Based Theories

• Law of Intervening Opportunities

Law of Intervening Opportunities by Stouffer ( 1940 ) developed the migration theory in a different direction. Stouffer proposed that “the number of people going a given distance is directly proportional to the number of opportunities at that distance and inversely proportional to the number of intervening opportunities.”

Comparing with gravity law, the number of intervening opportunities \(s_{ij}\) replaces the distance between origin and destination. For example, a resident living in location \(i\) is attracted to location \(j\) with \(s_{ij}\) job opportunities in between.

\[ p_{ij}\propto m_i \frac{P(1|m_i,m_j,s_{ij})}{\sum_{k=1}^n P(1|m_i,m_j,s_{ij})}, \qquad i\ne j \]

where the conditional probability \(P(1|m_i,m_j,s_{ij})\) can be expressed by Schneider (1959) as:

\[ P(1|m_i,m_j,s_{ij})=\exp[-\gamma s_{ij}] - \exp[-\gamma (m_j + s_{ij})] \]

• Radiation Law

Simini et al. ( 2012 ) propose a radiation model express the probability of the destination \(j\) absorbing a person living in location \(i\) as below:

\[ P(1|m_i,m_j,s_{ij})= \frac{m_i m_j}{(m_i + s_{ij})(m_i + m_j + s_{ij})} \]

Or in transportation model it is expressed as:

\[ T_{ij}= O_i\cdot\frac{m_i m_j}{(m_i + s_{ij})(m_i + m_j + s_{ij})} \] To approximating the number of opportunities, \(s_{ij}\) is from the population within a circle centered at origin. The radius is the distance between \(i\) and \(j\) . Then \(m_i + m_j + s_{ij}\) represents the total population within the circle, and \(m_i + s_{ij}\) is the total population within the circle but excluding \(j\) , that is:

\[ T_{ij}= O_i\cdot\frac{m_i }{m_i + s_{ij}}\cdot\frac{m_j}{m_i + m_j + s_{ij}} \] The part of fraction converts to the product of two weights, the weights of origin and destination in the whole region. Although distance \(d_{ij}\) doesn’t appear in the expression of radiation model, it is still a determinant as in gravity model.

• Distance Decay (hazard models)

Using the survival analysis framework, Yang et al. ( 2014 ) further extended this model by assuming a trip from origin to destination as a time-to-event process. Here time variable is replaced by the number of opportunities.

The survival function \(S(t)=Pr(T>t)\) represents the cumulative probability of the event not happened within a certain amount of opportunities. Choosing Weibull distribution as the survival function, \(S(t)=\exp[-\lambda t^\alpha]\) with scale parameter \(\lambda \in (0, +\infty)\) . By assuming \(f(\lambda)=\exp[-\lambda]\) and integral on \(\lambda\) , the derivation is:

By replacing \(t\) with \(m_i+s_{ij}\) , the conditional probability is:

\[ \begin{aligned} P(1|m_i,m_j,s_{ij})= &\frac{P(T>m_i+s_{ij})-P(T> m_i+s_{ij}+m_j)}{P(T>m_i)} \\ =&\frac{[(m_i + s_{ij} + m_j)^{\alpha}-(m_i + s_{ij})^{\alpha}](m_i^{\alpha}+1)}{[(m_i + s_{ij} + m_j)^{\alpha}+1][(m_i + s_{ij})^{\alpha}+1]}\\ \end{aligned} \]

where \(\alpha\) is a parameter adjusting the effect of the number of job opportunities between origins and destinations.

A similar method can be found in Ding, Mishra, et al. ( 2017 ) ’s study. They use a multilevel hazard model to examine the effects of TAZ level and individual level factors with respect to commuting distance using the data of Washington metropolitan area.

Based on commuting data from six countries, Lenormand, Bassolas, and Ramasco ( 2016 ) found gravity law performs better than the intervening opportunities law. The reasons could be the circle with radius \(d_{ij}\) can not accurately represent the real influencing area, and the different between population and opportunities is not captured in this way.

2.2.2 Time Geography

In contrast to overall trip distribution, the movements of individuals are always research interest in geography. Hägerstraand ( 1970 ) proposed some concepts and tools in space and time to measure and understand the individual trajectories. This branch is called time geography. The famous “space-time aquarium/prism” is a 3D cube by adding temporal scales on the geographic space. It can capture the detailed structure and behavior of traveler.

A daily travel could include multiple trips and form a travel chain. The traveler may switch the sequence or adjust the routes to optimize the chain and minimize the travel costs. The daily total travel distance is the summation of every trip distances. The number of trips denotes as trip count. It exists but not so common that driving itself is the travel purpose, especially in daily life.

At individual level, time geography borrows some physical and mathematical concept and methods such as random walk, Brownian motion, and Levy flight

Along with the wide usage of Global Positioning System (GPS), high performance computer, and sophisticated algorithms, the high-resolution data being collected. The relevant studies also have a dramatic increase after 2005.

2.3 Discussion

The theories of travel behavior follow a positivism tradition for a long time. Economics and geography give some strong explanations for both macro and micro travel patterns. In order to remove the limitation of ideal rationality, more sociological and psychological theories and methods are introduced into this field. Gradually, people realized the normative concept is not sufficient for real world applications. More descriptive and narrative arguments appear in transportation and land use planning. An example is the shift from mobility to accessibility.

A primary trend in urban and transportation fields recently is the transition from techno-centric to socio-centric (Lanzini & Stochetti, 2020) 8 The socio-centric methods claim that accessibility is the key concept for evaluating urban sustainable mobility. This trend emphasizes the interpretations of travel behavior are context dependent and avoids generalizations.

Research in human mobility insist the positivism methodology and has some significant contributions because the individuals differences are confounded at the macro level. Under this framework, geographic distance always plays a prominent role in all human mobility theories. In adding to travel distance and Origin-Destination Matrices, Some primary metrics such as Mean Square Displacement and Radius of gyration are defined to quantitatively describe travel behaviors

A vital insight is that human behavior has two mobility roles: explorers and returners. It might be an inherent property of society, the instinct of exploring more territory and keeping together for division of labor. The explorers’ behavior is consistent with the theory of utility maximization. People are always looking for more benefit. The concept of habit also match the behavior of ‘preferential return,’ which means people are natural or nurtured likely to return to frequently visited locations or recently-visited locations.

Both gravity and opportunities theory choose population size as the source of travel demand. This is a rough assumption and is not enough to get more accurate predictions. One solution is to use empirical observed demand to calibrate the model case by case. Another way is to find more suitable variables such as residential, employment, or activity size to improve the model.

When area of interest is intra-urban, the O-D matrix records the trip connections among all paired locations. The matrix contain plenty of information including urban spatial structure, opportunities, activities and other socio-economic characteristics. The theories imply that O-D matrix have some strong connections to travel behavior in some ways. The first challenge is how to mine the information and extract some explainable elements. A limitation is that the empirical O-D matrix may only reflect the particular characteristics in that city and can not be applied to others. The second challenge is how to get a generalized interpretation,

Once choosing the individual perspective, current theories and methods are still insufficient. For example, the physical transportation network is only a part of travel decisions. Social networks with a ‘hub-and-spoke structure’ play a prominent role in finding a job. Using social media data, some studies provide valuable insight but still have a gap to form new theories.

An interdisciplinary perspective could provide a theoretical explanation for model selection. Existing mobility theories can play an anchor to identify the key variables’ property and confirm the additive and linear relation among the factors.

CMDT=Cognitive moral development theory (Kohlberg, 1984),

ITB=Ipsative theory of behavior (Frey, 1988),

NAM=Norm activation model (Schwartz, 1977,Schwartz and Howard, 1981),

SDT=Self-determination theory(Deci & Ryan, 1985),

TAM=Technology acceptance model(Davis, 1989),

TDM=Travel demand management measures,

TNC=Theory of normative conduct (Cialdini et al., 1990,Cialdini et al., 1991),

TPB=Theory of planned behavior(Ajzen, 1985,Ajzen, 1991),

VBN=Value-belief-norm (Stern, 2000,Stern et al., 1999),

MGB=Model of goal-directed behavior(Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001), ↩︎

“Prospect Theory - an Overview ScienceDirect Topics ” ( n.d. ) ↩︎

Visser ( 2013 ) ; Jiang, Yin, and Liu ( 2015 ) ; Rozenfeld et al. ( 2011 ) ; Gomez-Lievano, Youn, and Bettencourt ( 2012 ) ; Hackmann and Klarl ( 2020 ) ↩︎

Jiang and Jia ( 2011 ) ; Chen and Jiang ( 2018 ) ; Jiang ( 2018a ) ; Jiang ( 2018b ) ↩︎

Lanzini P., Stochetti A.. From Techno-Centrism toSocio-Centrism: The Evolution of Principles for Urban Sustainable Mobility [J].International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 2020, in Press. ↩︎

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The Evolution of Travel Agencies: A Historical Perspective

The history of travel agencies is a compelling narrative that has witnessed significant transformations over the years. This article explores the evolution of travel agencies from their early beginnings to the present day, highlighting key milestones and shifts in the industry.

Early Travel Arrangements:

Before the establishment of travel agencies, individuals took charge of their travel arrangements directly with transportation providers and accommodations. This process was often cumbersome and time-consuming, requiring considerable effort from the traveler.

Emergence of Travel Agencies:

In the 19th century, the concept of travel agencies began to take shape. Thomas Cook & Son, founded in 1841 by Thomas Cook, is recognized as one of the earliest travel agencies. Initially focusing on organizing railway outings, the agency later expanded its services to include international travel.

Growth and Globalization:

As transportation infrastructure grew and global travel became more accessible, the role of travel agencies expanded. They became intermediaries between travelers and various service providers, offering packaged tours and simplifying the booking process.

Technology and Online Booking:

The late 20th century witnessed a transformative shift with the advent of technology. The rise of the internet allowed travelers to research and book their trips online, reducing dependence on traditional brick-and-mortar travel agencies.

Specialization and Niche Markets:

As the travel industry diversified, agencies began specializing in specific niches such as adventure travel, luxury vacations, or eco-tourism. This specialization enabled agencies to cater to the unique preferences of different traveler segments.

Challenges and Adaptation:

The advent of online booking platforms and direct-to-consumer options presented challenges to the traditional travel agency model. However, many agencies have adapted by leveraging technology to enhance customer service, offering personalized experiences and providing expertise in complex travel arrangements.

Conclusion:

While the travel agency landscape has undergone significant changes, agents continue to play a crucial role, particularly for complex or customized trips. Their expertise and personalized service add substantial value, contributing to a resurgence in specific segments of the industry. The role of travel agencies continues to evolve in response to changing consumer preferences and technological advancements, ensuring their relevance in the dynamic world of travel.

Disclaimer: Opinions expressed in this article The opinions and viewpoints expressed in this article are intended to provide an insightful exploration of the history and evolution of tourism ambassadors. However, it is essential to note that these opinions do not necessarily reflect those of the author or the Tourism Academy. The article aims to present a comprehensive overview of the topic based on available information and research, but individual perspectives may vary. Please consider multiple sources and viewpoints when you understand the subject matter.

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Related articles, us travel's geoff freeman on leadership and industry transformation, family travel association: transforming travel agent accreditation with the tourism academy, unveiling the spirit of travel with bud geissler, 2024 american bus association marketplace chair.

Research on the Competitive Dimension of Travel Agencies Based on the Marketing Dynamic Capabilities Theory

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Complex, dynamic and competitive environment has posed many challenges to travel agencies regarding maintaining competitive advantages and it is imperative that the Travel agencies must have the marketing dynamic capabilities to quickly respond the changes taking place in the market. Based on the theory of marketing dynamic capabilities and the problems being faced by the travel agencies, this paper applies factor analysis to analyze the various dimensions of travel agencies’ competitiveness. The results shows that the dimensions included five categories: market information management; social network resources; travel agencies human resources; brand management and travel agency innovation, and the roles of different dimensions to enhance the competitiveness were different.

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Han, N., Li, J., Liu, Jm. (2013). Research on the Competitive Dimension of Travel Agencies Based on the Marketing Dynamic Capabilities Theory. In: Qi, E., Shen, J., Dou, R. (eds) The 19th International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38442-4_112

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Websites Marketing Strategy of Travel Agency Using an Integrated Theory of 4C and 4P

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Websites Marketing Strategy of Travel Agency Using an Integrated

Theory of 4c and 4p.

LIAO Huilan

School of Business Administration, Guangxi University of Finance and Economics, China, 530003 [email protected]

Abstract: For the travel agency, its website is not only the tool of marketing, but also is a special

product provided to tourists. So it is necessary for travel agency to develop the website marketing strategy scientifically and systematically. This paper analyzes the development of travel agencies’ website in China and their marketing situation at present. Then innovates the website marketing strategy and optimizes the marketing activities for the travel agency with the help of the integrated theory of 4C and 4P. That is to say, the travel agency need to provide target customers with websites information they need, determine price basing on the cost structure that customer are willing to pay, establish more convenient distribution channels for customers, and emphasize promotion way for equally conducting a two-way communication with consumers. All of these are in order to improve the effect of website marketing carried out by the travel agencies.

Keywords: Travel agency’s website marketing, Marketing mix strategy, Integrated theory of 4C and 4P

1 Introduction

With development and popularity of Internet, more and more travel agencies are conducting marketing activity by establishing their own websites. Due to lack of related experiences and less mature theory as a guide, the websites established of travel agency are nothing but a static business card and plays a limited effect on marketing goals achievement of enterprises. So how to apply the Internet to marketing activity has been increasingly a focus. Judging from the present related studies, most of studies regard the websites of travel agency as a tool in network marketing. [1-9] Whereas, as we all know, the websites of the travel agency is not only a carrier used to conduct network marketing, but also a special product for customers. Like other products, the websites of travel agency also need to develop a complete marketing strategy. However, this has been rarely studies. The researchers only discuss the marketing function, marketing model and marketing effect evaluation of travel agency websites. [10-12] The majority of present studies findings can only solve the problems on how to use the websites of travel agencies to conduct marketing activity, and can do nothing to problems caused by its unreasonable scheme of travel websites. This paper attempts to integrate 4P and 4C theory and uses it as a guide to make an analysis of websites marketing strategy of travel service, providing reference for travel agencies to conduct scientific website marketing.

2 The Development and Present Marketing Situation of Travel Agencies Website

By the end of 2011, the total number of Chinese travel agency was 236901. But China tourism academy believes that there were actually more than 70000 entities that operate tour business2. Using Baidu search engine, we query the company’s URL which was placed on the Chinese top 100 travel agencies 20113, find that 94 of 100 travel agencies have self-built website; 4% of the total have no self-built but hosting website which rely on the B2C platform such as Xinxin travel network (http://www.cncn.com/)

China Travel Agency Statistics Bulletin for the Fourth Quarter of 2012. CNTA, http://wwww.cnta.gov.cn/. 2

China Travel Agency Development Report 2012. The China Youth Daily, December 28, 2012, 11th edition. 3

and so on; Only two travel agencies which accounts for 2% have neither self-built website nor hosting website. In general, most of the travel agencies have realized the importance of network marketing. But there are still some problems in enhancing marketing effect by establishing websites.

2.1 Unscientific name and information classification of website

Website names of some large travel agency groups are not scientifically classified, e.g. their subsidiaries and business department have different domain names of websites, but share the same website names. For ordinary tourists, they are too patient to distinguish whether it is true or false and just neglect these websites to avoid the so-called fishing websites or traps. For the sake of management, in such websites, the travel agencies classify tour routes into team tours and individual tours, or directly classify tour routes according to travel destinations. An ordinary tourist concern is not the travel form of tourism but travel arrangement which maximize his or her travel purpose.

2.2 Incomplete information of products and service

The main purposes that tourists visit the websites of travel agency are to understand in depth the complete information about the tour product and service, and define the benefits he or she will receive from the product purchase. Currently, most of network marketing of travel agencies prefer to sell large-scale products which information are new to travelers rather than customized products that they know well. And these large-scale products are usually copied each other between the enterprise but not created by enterprise itself. This product information contains words and pictures for presenting spots and activities in the travel routes. While personalized product benefits description are not fully demonstrated to customer, especially the unique experience in the aspects of meals, accommodation, transportation, traveling, shopping and amusement. In addition, some essential information such as weather reminding, luggage and health care advices are rarely seen.

2.3 The inconvenience of website distribution

Online transactions provided by some websites of travel agencies present no obvious practical effect, which is far from expected effect which aims to expand distributions of travel agencies to improve the consume conveniences of travelers. The reason lies that: tourists are not confidently sure products to be bought as the websites cannot fully inform the tourists with complete information. Therefore, to deal with the transaction with much money and time, travelers are likely to choose transaction face to face instead of online. Although online counseling function of QQ or E-mail do help bilateral communication between travel agencies and travelers, but the poor function of words and slow responses of customer services fail to apparently reduce the time cost of travelers during transaction consultation.

In a word, most travel agencies consider websites as an auxiliary tool rather than product of enterprises, thus they have less awareness of network marketing, and lack overall planning of website construction and marketing. Although some websites employ new marketing tools, the application of those tools is used casually with strong subjective due to lack of an overall and systematic marketing theory as a guide.

3 Theory of 4C and 4P and Their Advantage and Disadvantage

Marketing mix was used for the first time by American market expert, Baodun, and then concluded to 4p by Prof, McCarthy that is product, price, place and promotion. While Prof. Lauterborn put forward a marketing mix theory with 4C as the core content which includes consumer, cost, convenience and communication. 4P theory, taking customers with no notable differences as objects, is designed for enterprises based on product strategy. This theory emphasis one-to-more communications between enterprises and customers, and neglect demands differences of customers. By 4P theory, it is difficult for enterprises to establish a long-term relationship with customers. Due to controllability of 4P, 4P can be readily operated and realized. While 4C theory aims to satisfy the requirement of customers, and stress

that enterprises should have an equal one-to-one communication with customers. By 4C theory, enterprises are encouraged to fully take suggestions of customers to meet their demands for avoiding customers reduction. But enterprises cannot completely manage the factors of 4C. Compared with 4P theory, 4C theory shows less operability.

In sum, both theory of 4P and 4C have their own advantages and disadvantages. They should be combined in application. Individual tours in China have been well-received by travelers. The demand differences of customers has been increasingly significant. Therefore, the travel agencies should conduct network marketing based on 4C theory that attaches more importance to customers’ demands, and design network marketing strategy using 4C theory with good operability.

4 Network Marketing Suggestions in China to Travel Agencies with the

Integrated theory of 4c and 4p as comprehensive guide.

4.1 Exploring potential needs of customer and providing target customers with websites information they need

Network marketing is conducted based on need. The travel agency can identify potential travelers’ needs using market research system of websites (e.g., tour community, tourism BBS, tour products or services reviews and tour chat room) to further judge tour need orientation by feedback information. By sorting those potential travelers whose needs is consistent to travel agency business operation, then classifying them carefully, the target market can be determined by travel agencies. Finally, the travel agencies design tour routes and collect related information based on need of target market, and release complete travel product information on websites.

The comprehensive information of tour product should include tour route, tourist attractions, accommodation, transportation, catering, shopping, entertainment, travel and travel health care knowledge, etc. In addition to conventional contents, tour route information also need describe the theme features and values and the benefits to travelers of the route. Tourist attractions information mainly illustrates the natural, human landscapes, weather, and the ticket price for it, etc. While accommodation information are mainly provided related to the tour products sales in travel agency’s websites. Other relevant information of hotels and restaurants are supplement. For travelers to choose suitable routes basing their needs and arrange their trips, the website should provide the transportation information related to the tour routes, at the same time, establish dynamic information query bulletin system for each means of transportation. Furthermore, local food culture with regional characteristics is also an indispensable part of website. The restaurants information that related to tour products offered by travel agencies should inform tourists for making decisions. According to the need of tourists, travel agencies introduce some shopping information and the cultural evolution of some goods. Some big travel agencies can conduct wholesale and retail trade of goods by establishing online shopping malls. Moreover, as an important part of tour product, entertainments activities on the websites should be in agreement with the theme of tour products and present national characteristics and regional culture. And the relevant information of entertainments should be clear at first glance. To make travelers prepare well both physically and mentally for any problem that may occur, travel website should provide the correct travel knowledge to choose suitable travel products and adopt ways of travel health care according to individual differences.

Besides, travel agencies shall keep track of the travel product information published on website and update timely if any changes are found. At the same time, websites of travel agencies should also focus on the new emerging projects, timely report the development and operation of these items, and form new information of tour route, travel knowledge and travel health care according to the need of tourists.

4.2 Determine price basing on the cost structure that customer are willing to pay

Tour product cost including monetary and time cost that travelers are willing to pay is closely related to travelers’ individual attributes. Travel agencies can conduct website survey on acceptable cost

oftravelers with different attributes towards same theme travel product and carefully calculate every cost of optional elements. Then the contents and prices of same theme travel product for different consumers can be eventually determined. Also, the travel product cost that customers are willing to pay depends on the customization degree they require. The higher the customization degree, the more travel product theme personalized, the more the travelers are willing to pay.

4.3 Establishing more convenient distribution channels for customers

Tourists are willing to accept various services that website provides only the website can bring benefits and convenience for them. So websites construction and content arrangement should performed basing on the tourists interests.

First of all, website domain name of parent company of the travel agency and its subsidiaries should be unified and has a high ranking in major search engines as possible. The design of travel website homepages should be concise by only setting two links including enterprise information platform and e-commerce platform. E-commerce platform, as a service platform, provides all products and services information to ultimate customers. Other enterprise information is classified as the enterprise information platform. At the same time, e-commerce platform should also provide all links of subsidiaries websites for tourists’ selection.

Secondly, information service of e-commerce websites should be classified based on the process of before-sale, in-sale and after sale. Before-sale service mainly introduces consumption common-sense, tour product information and solving questions of customers online. In-sale service provides a good online trading platform, convenient way of settlement for customers. After sale service is to deal with customer complaints, answer doubts of travelers after experiencing, ask opinions and suggestions, and promote new tour products.

Thirdly, the tour product information on website should be classified and edited in a form of destination and theme. According to demands of travelers in different time, the travel agencies classify all information, integrate destination information on website, and arrange web page information of product based on themes. In addition to use of traditional graphic introduction method to release product information, some websites of lager travel agencies should also actively use the virtual tour technology to have tourists to experience spots and accommodation of the tour products before booking. Considering the convenience of travelers, the links of every item name introduced in each essential tour elements of tour produce should be embedded so that tourist can enter into e-commerce reservation platform of single item by clicking the link.

Fourthly, travel agencies preliminarily provide on-line customization service of personalized tour product. In order to solve the contradiction between demand of personalized tour products and scale economy of travel agencies, websites of travel agencies shall make a compromise, namely an ordering service. According to such service, considerate number of standardized options and service modules basing on different tourism elements such as the tourism attractions, facilities, catering, accommodation and so on can be set up so that travelers can freely choose collocation and form special travel product combination. When the market of personalized travel product gradually becoming mature, the travel agencies provide the real tour product one to one custom service.

4.4 Emphasizing promotion way for equally conducting a two-way communication with consumers

In addition to traditional means of promotion like advertising, travel agencies should establish new promotion idea based on an equal two-way communication on their website. By using the existing tools in travel agency website (e.g., tour community, tourism BBS, E-mail, tour microblog and database) as a promotion method, they communicate with customers using services and products, let customers to obtain correct information and make satisfied decision; thus, satisfaction and loyalty of target customers on the travel agency products and services can be improved. Therefore, the travel agencies should take the opportunity to collect materials of consumer by a variety of network means, establish their own

information database of tourists to implement targeted marketing; meanwhile, by collecting tourists' opinions and suggestions regarding tour products, travel agencies can know travelling experiences of customer to further improve the existing travel products or develop new products. What’s more, travel agencies can encourage tourists to comment on products and services by providing necessary technologies; thus, tourists can form a network community or forum with common topics in website.

5 Conclusion

The travel agency’s website, as a special product provided to the tourists by the travel agency, need a complete marketing strategy based on how to satisfy the needs of the target tourists. This website marketing strategy will be more scientific and systematic under the guidance of the 4C and 4P theory. That is to say, the travel agency need to exploit potential needs of customer and provide target customers with websites information they need, determine price basing on the cost structure that customer are willing to pay, establish more convenient distribution channels for customers, and emphasize promotion way for equally conducting a two-way communication with consumers. All of these are in order to achieve the goal of website marketing in the travel agency. Limited to the method of qualitative analysis, some viewpoints in the paper can’t be confirmed by the practical data. So the method should be used for the later research which includes the qualitative and quantitative analysis. Also the field of vision can be broadened from the difference research in the website marketing strategy between foreign travel agencies and Chinese. These later researches will provide more valuable findings for our travel agencies to shape their marketing strategy of website.

[1]. Jyh-Jeng Wu. Effect of transaction trust on e-commerce relationships between travel agencies [J]. Tourism Management, 2006 (6): 1253-1261

[2]. Hsien-Tang Tsai, Leo Huang, Chung-Gee Lin. Emerging e-commerce development model for Taiwanese travel agencies [J]. Tourism Management 26 (2005): 787-796

[3]. Meltem Ozturan, Sevgin Akis, Roney. Internet use among travel agencies in Turkey: an exploratory study [J]. Tourism Management 25 (2004) 259-266

[4]. Leo Huang. Building up a B2B e-commerce strategic alliance model under an uncertain environment for Taiwan’s travel agencies [J]. Tourism Management, 2006 (6): 1308-1320

[5]. Raja Mazhatul Yasmin Suraya. Internet diffusion and E-Business Opportunities Amongst Malaysian Travel Agencies [J]. Journal of American Academy of Business, 2005 (1): 78-84 [6]. Wei Ailian. The Research on Microblog Marketing Strategy in Travel Agencies Illustrated by the

Example of South Lake International Travel Agency. China Business and Trade, 2012, (11): 38 and 39 (in Chinese)

[7]. Wei Ri. On the Problems and the Innovative Strategies in the Network Marketing in Our Country’s Travel Agencies. Market Modernization, 2010 (1): 66-67 (in Chinese)

[8]. Huang Ping. The Research on the Network Marketing Strategy in China Travel Agencies. Modern Business Trade industry, 2009, (29): 115-116 (in Chinese)

[9]. Zhan Zhaozong. Travel Agency How to Develop the Network Marketing. Tourism Tribune, 2007, (5): 9 (in Chinese)

[10]. Yang Suoqiang, etc. The Strategy of Information Product and Marketing Model on Tourism Website. Journal of Intelligence, 2003, (12): 55 to 57 (in Chinese)

[11]. Fu Rong etc. Marketing Function Analysis of the Travel Agencies’ Website in Hunan Province. China Market, 2008, (4): 144-145 (in Chinese)

[12]. Wang Lili etc. The Marketing Effect Research on the Chinese Travel Agency Website by the Content Analysis Illustrated by the Example of 44 Domestic Travel Agencies Website. Shanghai Management Science, 2008, (5): 40-47 (in Chinese)

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The trains and stations of the Moscow Metro

2 Comments · Posted by Alex Smirnov in Cities , Travel , Video

The Moscow Metro is the third most intensive subway system in the world after Tokyo and Seoul subways. The first line was opened on May 15, 1935. Since 1955, the metro has the name of V.I. Lenin.

The system consists of 12 lines with a total length of 305.7 km. Forty four stations are recognized cultural heritage. The largest passenger traffic is in rush hours from 8:00 to 9:00 and from 18:00 to 19:00.

Cellular communication is available on most of the stations of the Moscow Metro. In March 2012, a free Wi-Fi appeared in the Circle Line train. The Moscow Metro is open to passengers from 5:20 to 01:00. The average interval between trains is 2.5 minutes.

The fare is paid by using contactless tickets and contactless smart cards, the passes to the stations are controlled by automatic turnstiles. Ticket offices and ticket vending machines can be found in station vestibules.

Tags:  Moscow city

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The bridge over Zolotoy Rog Bay in Vladivostok

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Tomás · August 27, 2012 at 11:34 pm

The Moscow metro stations are the best That I know, cars do not.

Alberto Calvo · September 25, 2016 at 8:57 pm

Great videos! Moscow Metro is just spectacular. I actually visited Moscow myself quite recently and wrote a post about my top 7 stations, please check it out and let me know what you think! :)

http://www.arwtravels.com/blog/moscow-metro-top-7-stations-you-cant-miss

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Turn Your Curiosity Into Discovery

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40 facts about elektrostal.

Written by Lanette Mayes

Modified & Updated: 02 Mar 2024

Reviewed by Jessica Corbett

Elektrostal is a vibrant city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia. With a rich history, stunning architecture, and a thriving community, Elektrostal is a city that has much to offer. Whether you are a history buff, nature enthusiast, or simply curious about different cultures, Elektrostal is sure to captivate you.

This article will provide you with 40 fascinating facts about Elektrostal, giving you a better understanding of why this city is worth exploring. From its origins as an industrial hub to its modern-day charm, we will delve into the various aspects that make Elektrostal a unique and must-visit destination.

So, join us as we uncover the hidden treasures of Elektrostal and discover what makes this city a true gem in the heart of Russia.

Key Takeaways:

• Elektrostal, known as the “Motor City of Russia,” is a vibrant and growing city with a rich industrial history, offering diverse cultural experiences and a strong commitment to environmental sustainability.
• With its convenient location near Moscow, Elektrostal provides a picturesque landscape, vibrant nightlife, and a range of recreational activities, making it an ideal destination for residents and visitors alike.

Known as the “Motor City of Russia.”

Elektrostal, a city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia, earned the nickname “Motor City” due to its significant involvement in the automotive industry.

Home to the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Elektrostal is renowned for its metallurgical plant, which has been producing high-quality steel and alloys since its establishment in 1916.

Boasts a rich industrial heritage.

Elektrostal has a long history of industrial development, contributing to the growth and progress of the region.

Founded in 1916.

The city of Elektrostal was founded in 1916 as a result of the construction of the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Located approximately 50 kilometers east of Moscow.

Elektrostal is situated in close proximity to the Russian capital, making it easily accessible for both residents and visitors.

Known for its vibrant cultural scene.

Elektrostal is home to several cultural institutions, including museums, theaters, and art galleries that showcase the city’s rich artistic heritage.

A popular destination for nature lovers.

Surrounded by picturesque landscapes and forests, Elektrostal offers ample opportunities for outdoor activities such as hiking, camping, and birdwatching.

Hosts the annual Elektrostal City Day celebrations.

Every year, Elektrostal organizes festive events and activities to celebrate its founding, bringing together residents and visitors in a spirit of unity and joy.

Has a population of approximately 160,000 people.

Elektrostal is home to a diverse and vibrant community of around 160,000 residents, contributing to its dynamic atmosphere.

Boasts excellent education facilities.

The city is known for its well-established educational institutions, providing quality education to students of all ages.

A center for scientific research and innovation.

Elektrostal serves as an important hub for scientific research, particularly in the fields of metallurgy, materials science, and engineering.

Surrounded by picturesque lakes.

The city is blessed with numerous beautiful lakes, offering scenic views and recreational opportunities for locals and visitors alike.

Well-connected transportation system.

Elektrostal benefits from an efficient transportation network, including highways, railways, and public transportation options, ensuring convenient travel within and beyond the city.

Famous for its traditional Russian cuisine.

Food enthusiasts can indulge in authentic Russian dishes at numerous restaurants and cafes scattered throughout Elektrostal.

Home to notable architectural landmarks.

Elektrostal boasts impressive architecture, including the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord and the Elektrostal Palace of Culture.

Offers a wide range of recreational facilities.

Residents and visitors can enjoy various recreational activities, such as sports complexes, swimming pools, and fitness centers, enhancing the overall quality of life.

Provides a high standard of healthcare.

Elektrostal is equipped with modern medical facilities, ensuring residents have access to quality healthcare services.

Home to the Elektrostal History Museum.

The Elektrostal History Museum showcases the city’s fascinating past through exhibitions and displays.

A hub for sports enthusiasts.

Elektrostal is passionate about sports, with numerous stadiums, arenas, and sports clubs offering opportunities for athletes and spectators.

Celebrates diverse cultural festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal hosts a variety of cultural festivals, celebrating different ethnicities, traditions, and art forms.

Electric power played a significant role in its early development.

Elektrostal owes its name and initial growth to the establishment of electric power stations and the utilization of electricity in the industrial sector.

Boasts a thriving economy.

The city’s strong industrial base, coupled with its strategic location near Moscow, has contributed to Elektrostal’s prosperous economic status.

Houses the Elektrostal Drama Theater.

The Elektrostal Drama Theater is a cultural centerpiece, attracting theater enthusiasts from far and wide.

Popular destination for winter sports.

Elektrostal’s proximity to ski resorts and winter sport facilities makes it a favorite destination for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter activities.

Promotes environmental sustainability.

Elektrostal prioritizes environmental protection and sustainability, implementing initiatives to reduce pollution and preserve natural resources.

Home to renowned educational institutions.

Elektrostal is known for its prestigious schools and universities, offering a wide range of academic programs to students.

Committed to cultural preservation.

The city values its cultural heritage and takes active steps to preserve and promote traditional customs, crafts, and arts.

Hosts an annual International Film Festival.

The Elektrostal International Film Festival attracts filmmakers and cinema enthusiasts from around the world, showcasing a diverse range of films.

Encourages entrepreneurship and innovation.

Elektrostal supports aspiring entrepreneurs and fosters a culture of innovation, providing opportunities for startups and business development.

Offers a range of housing options.

Elektrostal provides diverse housing options, including apartments, houses, and residential complexes, catering to different lifestyles and budgets.

Home to notable sports teams.

Elektrostal is proud of its sports legacy, with several successful sports teams competing at regional and national levels.

Boasts a vibrant nightlife scene.

Residents and visitors can enjoy a lively nightlife in Elektrostal, with numerous bars, clubs, and entertainment venues.

Promotes cultural exchange and international relations.

Elektrostal actively engages in international partnerships, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic collaborations to foster global connections.

Surrounded by beautiful nature reserves.

Nearby nature reserves, such as the Barybino Forest and Luchinskoye Lake, offer opportunities for nature enthusiasts to explore and appreciate the region’s biodiversity.

Commemorates historical events.

The city pays tribute to significant historical events through memorials, monuments, and exhibitions, ensuring the preservation of collective memory.

Promotes sports and youth development.

Elektrostal invests in sports infrastructure and programs to encourage youth participation, health, and physical fitness.

Hosts annual cultural and artistic festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal celebrates its cultural diversity through festivals dedicated to music, dance, art, and theater.

Provides a picturesque landscape for photography enthusiasts.

The city’s scenic beauty, architectural landmarks, and natural surroundings make it a paradise for photographers.

Connects to Moscow via a direct train line.

The convenient train connection between Elektrostal and Moscow makes commuting between the two cities effortless.

A city with a bright future.

Elektrostal continues to grow and develop, aiming to become a model city in terms of infrastructure, sustainability, and quality of life for its residents.

In conclusion, Elektrostal is a fascinating city with a rich history and a vibrant present. From its origins as a center of steel production to its modern-day status as a hub for education and industry, Elektrostal has plenty to offer both residents and visitors. With its beautiful parks, cultural attractions, and proximity to Moscow, there is no shortage of things to see and do in this dynamic city. Whether you’re interested in exploring its historical landmarks, enjoying outdoor activities, or immersing yourself in the local culture, Elektrostal has something for everyone. So, next time you find yourself in the Moscow region, don’t miss the opportunity to discover the hidden gems of Elektrostal.

Q: What is the population of Elektrostal?

A: As of the latest data, the population of Elektrostal is approximately XXXX.

Q: How far is Elektrostal from Moscow?

A: Elektrostal is located approximately XX kilometers away from Moscow.

Q: Are there any famous landmarks in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to several notable landmarks, including XXXX and XXXX.

Q: What industries are prominent in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal is known for its steel production industry and is also a center for engineering and manufacturing.

Q: Are there any universities or educational institutions in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to XXXX University and several other educational institutions.

Q: What are some popular outdoor activities in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal offers several outdoor activities, such as hiking, cycling, and picnicking in its beautiful parks.

Q: Is Elektrostal well-connected in terms of transportation?

A: Yes, Elektrostal has good transportation links, including trains and buses, making it easily accessible from nearby cities.

Q: Are there any annual events or festivals in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal hosts various events and festivals throughout the year, including XXXX and XXXX.

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