recent tourism in antarctica

More than 100,000 tourists will head to Antarctica this summer. Should we worry about damage to the ice and its ecosystems?

Professor of English and Associate Dean, Research Performance, University of Tasmania

Associate Professor, Tourism and Society, University of Tasmania

Professor, University of Tasmania

Senior Lecturer in Musicology, Conservatorium of Music, School of Creative Arts and Media; Adjunct Senior Researcher, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, University of Tasmania

Lecturer, University of Tasmania

PhD Candidate, Centre for Marine Socioecology, University of Tasmania

Disclosure statement

Elizabeth Leane receives funding from the Australian Research Council LP190101116, which also includes funding from partner organisation Intrepid Travel, and DP220103005; the Dutch Research Council (NWA.1435.20.001); and the Australian Antarctic Division. Hurtigruten Australia provide in-kind support for fieldwork.

Anne Hardy receives funding from the Australian Research Council (LP190101116) and the Dutch Research Council (NWA.1435.20.001), and Hurtigruten Australia provide in-kind support for fieldwork.

Can Seng Ooi receives funding from the Australian Research Council LP190101116, which also includes funding and in-kind support for fieldwork from partner organisation Intrepid Travel.

Carolyn Philpott receives funding from the Australian Research Council LP190101116, which also includes funding and in-kind support for fieldwork from partner organisation Intrepid Travel, and DP220103005.

Hanne E.F. Nielsen receives funding from the Australian Research Council LP190101116, which also includes funding from partner organisation Intrepid Travel, and DP220103005; the Dutch Research Council (NWA.1435.20.001); and the Australian Antarctic Division. Hurtigruten Australia provide in-kind support for fieldwork.

Katie Marx works on a contract basis as an on-board lecturer and guide for an Antarctic tourism operator. She receives funding from the Australian Research Council LP190101116, which also includes funding and in-kind support for fieldwork from partner organisation Intrepid Travel.

University of Tasmania provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

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As the summer sun finally arrives for people in the Southern Hemisphere, more than 100,000 tourists will head for the ice. Travelling on one of more than 50 cruise ships, they will brave the two-day trip across the notoriously rough Drake Passage below Patagonia, destined for the polar continent of Antarctica.

During the COVID summer of 2020-21, just 15 tourists on two yachts visited Antarctica. But now, tourism is back – and bigger than ever. This season’s visitor numbers are up more than 40% over the largest pre-pandemic year .

So are all those tourists going to damage what is often considered the last untouched wilderness on the planet? Yes and no. The industry is well run. Tourists often return with a new appreciation for wild places. They spend a surprisingly short amount of time actually on the continent or its islands.

But as tourism grows, so will environmental impacts such as black carbon from cruise ship funnels. Tourists can carry in microbes, seed and other invasive species on their boots and clothes – a problem that will only worsen as ice melt creates new patches of bare earth. And cruise ships are hardly emissions misers.

How did Antarctic tourism go mainstream?

In the 1950s, the first tourists hitched rides on Chilean and Argentinian naval vessels heading south to resupply research bases on the South Shetland Islands. From the late 1960s, dedicated icebreaker expedition ships were venturing even further south. In the early 1990s, as ex-Soviet icebreakers became available, the industry began to expand – about a dozen companies offered trips at that time. By the turn of this century, the ice continent was receiving more than 10,000 annual visitors: Antarctic tourism had gone mainstream.

What does it look like today?

Most Antarctic tourists travel on small “expedition-style” vessels, usually heading for the relatively accessible Antarctic Peninsula. Once there, they can take a zodiac boat ride for a closer look at wildlife and icebergs or shore excursions to visit penguin or seal colonies. Visitors can kayak, paddle-board and take the polar plunge – a necessarily brief dip into subzero waters.

For most tourists, accommodation, food and other services are provided aboard ship. Over a third of all visitors never stand on the continent.

Those who do set foot on Antarctica normally make brief visits, rather than taking overnight stays.

For more intrepid tourists, a few operators offer overland journeys into the continent’s interior, making use of temporary seasonal camp sites. There are no permanent hotels, and Antarctic Treaty nations recently adopted a resolution against permanent tourist facilities.

As tourists come in increasing numbers, some operators have moved to offer ever more adventurous options such as mountaineering, heli-skiing, underwater trips in submersibles and scuba diving.

Is Antarctic tourism sustainable?

As Antarctic tourism booms, some advocacy organisations have warned the impact may be unsustainable. For instance, the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition argues cruise tourism could put increased pressure on an environment already under significant strain from climate change.

In areas visited most by tourists, the snow has a higher concentration of black carbon from ship exhaust, which soaks up more heat and leads to snow melt. Ship traffic also risks carrying hitchhiking invasive species into the Southern Ocean’s vulnerable marine ecosystems.

Read more: Toughness has limits: over 1,100 species live in Antarctica – but they're at risk from human activity

That’s to say nothing of greenhouse gas emissions. Because of the continent’s remoteness, tourists visiting Antarctica have a higher per capita carbon footprint than other cruise-ship travellers.

Of course, these impacts aren’t limited to tourism. Scientific expeditions come with similar environmental costs – and while there are far fewer of them, scientists and support personnel spend far more time on the continent.

Antarctic tourism isn’t going away – so we have to plan for the future

Are sustainable cruises an oxymoron? Many believe so .

Through its sheer size, the cruise industry has created mass tourism in new places and overtourism in others, generating unacceptable levels of crowding, disrupting the lives of residents, repurposing local cultures for “exotic” performances, damaging the environment and adding to emissions from fossil fuels.

In Antarctica, crowding, environmental impact and emissions are the most pressing issues. While 100,000 tourists a year is tiny by global tourism standards – Paris had almost 20 million in 2019 – visits are concentrated in highly sensitive ecological areas for only a few months per year. There are no residents to disturb (other than local wildlife), but by the same token, there’s no host community to protest if visitor numbers get too high.

Even so, strong protections are in place. In accordance with the Antarctic Treaty System – the set of international agreements signed by countries with an Antarctic presence or an interest – tourism operators based in those nations have to apply for permits and follow stringent environmental regulations .

To avoid introducing new species, tourists have to follow rules such as disinfecting their boots and vacuuming their pockets before setting foot on the ice, and keeping a set distance from wildlife.

Almost all Antarctic cruise owners belong to the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators, the peak body that manages Antarctic tourism.

For the first time this year, operators have to report their overall fuel consumption as part of IAATO’s efforts to make the industry more climate-friendly. Some operators are now using hybrid vessels that can run partly on electric propulsion for short periods, reducing carbon dioxide emissions.

Returning from the ice: the ambassador effect

Famed travel writer Pico Iyer recently wrote of his experience in the deep south of the world. The visit, he said, “awakens you to the environmental concerns of the world … you go home with important questions for your conscience as well as radiant memories”.

Iyer isn’t alone. This response is widespread, known in the industry as Antarctic ambassadorship . As you’d expect, this is strongly promoted by tourism operators as a positive.

Is it real? That’s contentious. Studies on links between polar travel and pro-environmental behaviour have yielded mixed results . We are working with two operators to examine the Antarctic tourist experience and consider what factors might feed into a long-lasting ambassador effect.

If you’re one of the tourists going to Antarctica this summer, enjoy the experience – but go with care. Be aware that no trip south comes without environmental cost and use this knowledge to make clear-eyed decisions about your activities both in Antarctica and once you’re safely back home.

Read more: Each Antarctic tourist effectively melts 83 tonnes of snow – new research

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Will Antarctica be the next victim of overtourism as visitor numbers continue to climb?

Balance between travel and preservation in world’s most remote wilderness is a fragile one.

As more travellers flock to Antarctica, the world's most protected wilderness faces an increasing conservation risk. Unsplash / Cassie Matias

Last year, for the first time, more than 100,000 tourists visited Antarctica. That figure is expected to increase in 2024.

It is in stark contrast to visitor numbers during the global pandemic when only two ships and 15 people ventured to the southern wilderness in the name of tourism .

Leslie Hsu, a freelance journalist and award-winning photographer, understands why. She had one of her most memorable holidays in the region.

She recounts a story of camping on the Kerr Point of Ronge Island, where she could hear the iceberg-laden waters of the Errera Channel lapping against the shore.

“I make my way towards the shoreline until I can hear waves striking rocks,” she tells The National . “Turning off my headlamp, I am engulfed in darkness, barely able to see my fingers in front of my face. At first, I feel exposed, vulnerable – unusual for someone who grew up camping, hiking, spelunking, climbing mountains and crossing rivers. Someone who came to Antarctica precisely to be alone with the coldest , driest, windiest, most hostile place on Earth.

View this post on Instagram A post shared by Leslie Hsu Oh | Writer + Photographer + Editor (@lesliehsuoh)

“A series of glaciers calving, one after another like dominoes, ripples towards me. I feel the ground trembling. Water rushes towards me and I cringe, expecting to be swept away into the channel. After things settle down, I sit down on the soft snow. Surprisingly, I don’t feel cold at all, cosy in my wind and water-resistant parka and boots. I doze. I listen. I breathe. Out of the darkness, blacks brighten to greys. There is no sunrise, just a gradual increase in contrast.

“I hear a whale surface for air. Kelp gulls tweet a morning greeting. And just when I start to worry that maybe I shouldn't be sitting out here by myself, I see six Gentoo Penguins take form not a stone’s throw away. They are all sleeping with their necks tucked into their backs, perfectly camouflaged in the austere black and white landscape.”

It's precisely this type of once-in-a-lifetime experience that has so many travellers flocking to Antarctica.

Unique journeys across the White Continent

This polar region is roughly twice the size of Australia and 98 per cent covered in ice. It is the largest wilderness on Earth unaffected by large-scale human activities and, as the only continent without an indigenous population, it is also one of the most protected places on the planet.

Winter in Antarctica is from March until October, and when daylight hours disappear, temperatures plunge to minus 30-60°C and the physically remote destination becomes even more inhospitable. But by autumn, as the country’s unique wildlife begins to emerge from hibernation, so too do the zealous tourists.

Antarctica is also the only continent with no terrestrial mammals, but it does have millions of penguins, thousands of seals and eight different species of whale. The allure of seeing these creatures in the wild is one of the main reasons people keep coming to the remote land.

Google data comparing search traffic from 2019 to 2022 showed a 51 per cent rise in interest around Antarctica cruises, and a 47 per cent rise in interest for Arctic cruises. Other trips are on the rise, too. These include luxury travel company Black Tomato’s nine-night Antarctic adventure that sailed to the White Continent at the same time the region witnessed a rare solar phenomenon. Or Elite Expeditions' new voyage that will see travellers conquer the glacial beauty of Antarctica's Vinson Massif.

While the pause in tourism during the pandemic allowed wildlife to thrive, the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators estimates that 106,000 visitors travelled to the region in the 2022-2023 tourist season, meaning those who work to protect the White Continent and its environment are wary of this increasing interest.

A wilderness that belongs to no nation

Seven countries – New Zealand, Australia, France, Norway, the UK, Chile, and Argentina – have all laid claim to different parts of Antarctica, but the destination is governed by an international partnership to which more than 56 countries have acceded, making it a wilderness that belongs to no nation.

Its tourism board is also unique. In 1991, the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) was set up not to encourage more visitors, but to regulate the sector and ensure the pristine environment remains so. Since 2009, concerns about the impact of tourism on the environment have been a recurring hot topic at the continent’s annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.

Several measures are already in place. As most visitors venture to the seventh continent via ship, better practices have been adopted to reduce the carbon footprint and environmental impact of any cruises sailing in these waters. There are also restrictions on how many people are allowed ashore, and strict regulations for planned activities, wildlife watching, and pre and post-visit activity reporting.

These rules are carefully followed by Black Tomato on all of its voyages. “We demand the highest standards from our partners, in everything from sustainability to safety, creativity to delivery,” says Tom Marchant, co-founder of the luxury tour operator. “In Antarctica, those standards mean we only work with a small selection of hand-picked IAATO-approved operators, and have seen us advocate light-touch, small-scale experiences where we can be assured that guidelines are being followed.”

In a post-pandemic world, the tourism company sees travellers seeking one-off adventures, something Antarctica is perfectly poised to offer. “A burgeoning trend we’ve seen since the pandemic is a strong pursuit of [what we call] the 'opposite', be it a safari, the wilderness, volcanic ranges or rugged islands – the flip side of big buildings and noisy cars in everyday life,” Marchant explains.

“Now, more than ever, travellers are seeking out the world untainted by crowds and queues. A world more ancient than our own, and with deeper roots. Antarctica is a great example of where dramatic and unfamiliar landscapes offer inimitable encounters that are all about experiencing the unknown. The opposite of our own daily lives.”

Will overtourism be Antarctica's downfall?

But as a destination that has long been sheltered from mass tourism, could this recent spike in traveller interest be the continent’s downfall? Could Antarctica be on track to become overtourism’s next victim, going the way of Mount Everest, with overcrowding and environmental pollution? Or of Italy’s Venice, which constantly struggles with the impact of visitors flocking in from visiting ships?

The IAATO says it is unlikely this will happen, saying the region's strict protection protocols are its saving grace.

“Antarctica is one of the most protected locations – if not the most protected location – on Earth when it comes to managing human activity,” a representative for the organisation tells The National . “All human activity there must be authorised by a competent authority and is subject to an Environmental Impact Assessment before proceeding.

“There is still a misconception that visitors to Antarctica are permitted to explore as they like, picking up souvenirs from the coastline and disturbing wildlife. IAATO’s rigorous rules and guidelines explained and enforced by expert field staff, coupled with robust policies laid out by the Antarctic Treaty, ensures this is not the case.”

White Desert, an ultra-luxury travel operator that specialises in zero-impact trips to Antarctica, has been a member of IAATO for nearly two decades. “We take just 250 people yearly – a maximum of 12 guests per trip travel to our camps during season, which runs from mid-November until February,” says chief executive and founder Patrick Woodhead.

“We have five key steps in place to minimise our impact, including using sustainable aviation fuel , carbon offsetting, an environmentally conscious supply chain that ensures we use no single-use plastic and responsibility for waste disposal. We also use solar energy to heat our pods and minimise use of fossil fuels. And we support and contribute to both the local scientific community and the Antarctic community.”

It's common for Antarctica operators to use tourism dollars to help fund scientific research that can help the world better understand the White Continent. Viking Cruises, for example, uses both of its Antarctic ships to host scientists, wet labs and detailed research programmes, all funded by holidaymaker’s money. And Ponant uses tourism revenue to offer science expedition grants for studies in the region.

IAATO says contributions like these are “fundamental to achieving research objectives in different fields of knowledge, going from the understanding of polar tourists’ behaviour and learning to the evaluation of environmental changes in places threatened by global warming”.

But for the conservation-focused Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, the measures adopted by tour operators may not be enough.

“In the absence of a comprehensive plan for managing tourism and tourist activities, adding new trips, inland activities and off-the-beaten-path excursions in Antarctica is a risky trend,” says the NGO's executive director Claire Christian.

“Ideally, any expansion in the areas that tourists visit or diversification of activities that tourists participate in should only take place as part of a management plan that has fully considered whether these activities are consistent with the environmental protection goals of the Environment Protocol. However, right now, there is no such plan.”

A delicate balance

While the majority of people visiting the region do so on vessels and never step foot on the ice, as more travel companies go out of their way to offer unique journeys that take travellers on land, the risk to the destination increases.

No matter how regulated the industry is, if the tourists snowshoeing through Antarctica’s ice-covered wilderness don’t adhere to the same ethos, damage could be inevitable.

To pre-empt this, IAATO publishes a series of general guidelines that visitors are expected to follow. These include everything from not touching wildlife to responsibly discarding rubbish and being aware of protected areas. However, membership to the association is not compulsory and if there are 106,000 visitors heading to Antarctica in a single season, how realistic is it that every tourist’s actions can be controlled?

Hsu questioned this on her dream trip to Antarctica last year. “Hurginten Expeditions was very careful about marking all the places that travellers were allowed to hike with cones whenever we left the ship, but even though they marked it off, it wasn’t always 100 per cent clear what areas we were supposed to stay away from,” she explains.

“I did wonder if all of these people walking around were affecting the landscape. We also saw many empty research stations as we ventured across the continent and this made me wonder whether these abandoned buildings are environmentally safe.”

Some tour operators, including White Desert, believe that by offering these life-changing expeditions, they will help “create a community of Antarctic Ambassadors who will share the importance of conserving the planet for future generations”.

Hsu is a living example of this. “The first thing I did when I got home was Google 'Antarctica Ambassadors' to find out more about this collaboration of people who care passionately about Antarctica and protecting its unique landscape. I had never heard of it before and I immediately signed up.”

Despite these initiatives, a question mark hangs over how Antarctica may fare as tourism continues to rise, especially as the Antarctic treaty that preserves the continent will only remain in place until 2048. After that, any treaty party can request a review, which could lead to crucial elements being changed.

“The treaty is up for renewal in 25 years and it’s vital that it’s upheld,” says White Desert founder Woodhead. “The protocol contains a number of tools, including environmental impact assessments and protected areas, that are extremely effective. Parties simply must use them, and it is critical for Antarctica's future.”

It may not yet be on course to rival Mount Everest as one of tourism's nature playgrounds, but as of now the balance of travel and preservation in the world’s most remote wilderness remains as fragile as the ice-covered sheets that surround it.

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Tourism in Antarctica: Edging Toward the (Risky) Mainstream

Travel to one of the most remote parts of the planet is booming. What does that mean for the environment and visitor safety?

By Paige McClanahan

In January, the Coral Princess, a ship with 2,000 berths and a crew of nearly 900, plowed through the frigid waters off the Antarctic Peninsula, cruising past icebergs, glaciers and mountains clad in snow. The cruise, which had been advertised at less than $4,000 per person, is remarkably cheaper than most Antarctic expeditions, which often charge guests at least three times that amount for the privilege of visiting one of the wildest parts of the planet. Visitors to the region — and the ships that carry them — are growing in number: Antarctica, once accessible only to well-funded explorers, is now edging toward the mainstream.

But managing tourism is a tricky issue in this distant region where no individual government has the power to set the rules, and the challenge is becoming more complex as Antarctica’s popularity grows. During the current austral summer, which runs from roughly November to March, visitor numbers to Antarctica are expected to rise by nearly 40 percent from the previous season. Some observers warn that such rapid growth risks imperiling visitor safety and adding pressure to this fragile region, which is already straining under the effects of climate change, commercial fishing for krill, toothfish and other species, and even scientific research.

Human activity in Antarctica falls under the governance of the Antarctic Treaty system, a model of international cooperation that dates to the Cold War era. But day-to-day management of tourism is regulated by the tour operators themselves, through a voluntary trade association that sets and enforces rules among its members. Observers agree that this system has worked well since it was set up in the 1990s, but some worry that booming tourist numbers could push the old system to a breaking point. They say that the consultative parties to the Antarctic Treaty system — governments like those of the United States, France, New Zealand, Argentina and some two dozen others — must act more quickly to manage tourism, and protect the region’s value as a wilderness.

“The bottom line for us is that there aren’t a lot of hard rules governing tourism. It’s mostly voluntary,” said Claire Christian, executive director of the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC), a network of more than 15 conservation groups that serves as an observer to the Antarctic Treaty system. “Right now, there is a lot of good will. But that’s not something you can guarantee.”

A booming industry

Tourism in the Antarctic began with a trickle in the 1950s, but the industry remained exclusive and expensive. Expeditions grew steadily and by the late 1980s, a handful of companies were offering sea- and land-based trips. In 1991, seven private tour operators came together to form the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). Among other things, the group’s aims were to promote “environmentally safe and responsible travel”; improve collaboration among its members; and create — among the operators’ paying clients — a “corps of ambassadors” who could advocate conservation of the Antarctic region after they returned home from their trips.

Visitor figures soon began to creep up, increasing from roughly 6,700 in the 1992-1993 season to nearly 15,000 by the end of that decade, according to IAATO figures. Apart from a dip after the 2008 financial crisis, numbers have risen steadily ever since. More than 56,000 tourists visited Antarctica during the 2018-2019 season. The figure for the current season is expected to rise to more than 78,500, more than double the total from a decade ago. The vast majority of visitors come by cruise ship, setting sail from ports like Ushuaia in Argentina or Punta Arenas in Chile.

Meanwhile, IAATO has been gaining an average of two to five operators every year, according to Lisa Kelley, IAATO’s head of operations. Its members now include 48 tour operators, as well as five provisional members (Princess Cruises among them) and more than 60 associates — travel agents, marketers and others that work in the industry but don’t run their own tours.

“At the end of the day, we’re all a bunch of competitors,” said Bob Simpson, vice president of expedition cruising at the luxury travel company Abercrombie & Kent and a former chair of IAATO’s executive committee. “But it’s in our best interest to work together and cooperate,” he added, “to ensure this extraordinary place is protected for future generations.”

Mr. Simpson said that IAATO has been “remarkably successful” in promoting sustainable travel to the region, noting that, in his view, the education and experiences that they offer their guests outweigh the negative impact of the carbon emissions associated with the trip.

Abercrombie & Kent and other IAATO members agree to abide by the organization’s bylaws and guidelines, as well as the rules set out by the Antarctic Treaty system. These govern things like the number of passengers allowed ashore during site visits, staff-to-visitor ratios, and the amount of experience required of the crew.

The rules also stipulate that vessels — like the Coral Princess — that carry more than 500 people are not allowed to make landings; they can only “cruise” off the coast. Smaller vessel expeditions — offered by companies such as Abercrombie & Kent, Hurtigruten and Lindblad Expeditions, among others — are allowed to make landings, and their passengers might have the opportunity to disembark with guides to walk, kayak, snowshoe, or even camp or ski onshore.

Membership in IAATO remains voluntary, although all Antarctic tour operators must obtain a permit to travel in Antarctica from one of the parties to the Antarctic Treaty. For now, Ms. Kelley said, every passenger ship operating in the Antarctic is either a member or provisional member of IAATO, apart from some private yachts, defined as vessels carrying 12 or fewer passengers. She is confident that the organization is ready to accommodate the surge in tourist numbers.

“We’ve learned our lesson from the previous two big spurts of growth,” Ms. Kelley said in a recent phone interview. “We’ve really looked at our systems carefully and really worked on trying to make them as robust as we possibly can.”

Safety concerns

Other observers are less confident that rising tourist numbers are sustainable. The risks range from possible damage to sites that tourists visit to the potential growth in non-IAATO tour operators to ensuring visitor safety.

Accidents are rare, but not unheard-of. In November 2007, the MS Explorer, a Liberian-flagged vessel carrying about 100 passengers and 50 crew, cracked its hull on submerged ice, then started to take on water and list severely. Those aboard evacuated to lifeboats around 2:30 a.m., then floated in the cold for more than three hours before another ship, the cruise liner Nordnorge, rescued them. No one was killed or injured, but that was in part because of the weather.

“Within two hours after the passengers and crew were aboard the Nordnorge, the weather conditions deteriorated with gale force winds,” according to the official investigative report into the incident, which was conducted by the Liberian Bureau of Maritime Affairs. “If the Nordnorge’s speed to the scene had been reduced due to rough sea conditions, there may have been fatalities from hypothermia.”

The environment didn’t fare as well. The MS Explorer slipped beneath the waves carrying more than 55,000 gallons of oil, lubricant and petrol; two days later, an oil slick spread over an area of nearly two square miles near the site of the wreck. A Chilean naval ship passed through to try to speed up the dispersal of the fuel, but the report noted that the “oil sheen” was still visible more than a year later.

Ms. Kelley said that measures have been introduced since the Explorer incident, including the International Maritime Organization’s new “ polar code ,” which, she said, imposes “real limits on where and how vessels can operate and how new ships should be built.” Fuel tanks must now be situated away from the vessel’s hull, for example; navigation officers are required to have more experience and environmental rules have been tightened.

But as visitor numbers grow, so, too, does the risk of an accident. And while all tour operators in the Antarctic are currently IAATO members or provisional members, a status that offers them a degree of support, there is no guarantee that companies new to the region will see the value in joining the organization. If they decide to go it alone, there is nothing to stop them.

“There have been incidents, but we have always been quite lucky in the sense that maybe the weather conditions were right or there were other ships around,” said Machiel Lamers, an associate professor at the Environmental Policy Group of Wageningen University in the Netherlands. “Having a couple of thousands of passengers and crew in Antarctic waters is, of course, another thing than having a couple of hundred.”

A fragile environment

Scientists warn that the rise in tourism also increases the risk of disrupting the fragile environment. The introduction of invasive species — nonnative crabs or mussels clinging to the hull of a ship, foreign plant seeds stuck in the lining of a tourist’s parka — remains an important and ever-present threat . There is also evidence that populations of penguins and other wildlife have been disturbed by human activity in some areas. At the popular Hannah Point, there have been two reported instances of elephant seals falling off a cliff because of visitor disturbance. At other sites , historic structures have been marred by graffiti.

The Antarctic Treaty parties have drawn up “ site visitor guidelines ” for 42 of the most popular landing sites; these govern things like where ships are allowed to land, where visitors are allowed to walk, and how many landings are allowed per day. But the IAATO website lists more than 100 landing sites on the Antarctic Peninsula. Those with no guidelines in place may become more popular as tour operators try to avoid the crowds.

Pollution from ships is another concern. Although the International Maritime Organization’s polar code introduced new measures to control pollution, it still allows ships to dump raw sewage into the ocean if they are more than 12 nautical miles, roughly 13.8 miles, away from the nearest ice shelf or “fast ice” — stationary sea ice attached to the continent or grounded icebergs. It also fails to regulate discharges of “graywater,” runoff from ships’ sinks, showers and laundries that has been shown to contain high levels of fecal coliform as well as other pathogens and pollutants. Concerns about pollution are perhaps all the more worrying given the arrival of Princess Cruise Lines, which — alongside its parent company, Carnival Corporation — has been heavily fined for committing serious environmental crimes in other parts of the world.

A spokeswoman for Princess Cruises stressed in an email that the company is “committed to environmental practices that set a high standard for excellence and responsibility to help preserve the marine environment in Antarctica.” Negin Kamali, Princess Cruises’ director of public relations, added that the company meets or exceeds all regulatory requirements for Antarctica.

Fuel pollution, especially carbon emissions — is another concern, although there have been some positive steps. In 2011, the use of heavy fuel oil in the Antarctic was banned under the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). Today, ships in the region generally use less-polluting marine diesel, although some — like the MS Roald Amundsen , run by the Norwegian company Hurtigruten — have gone a step further, supplementing their traditional fuel with battery power. Princess Cruises is currently testing similar technologies, said Ms. Kamali.

In the background, warmer temperatures are making the entire continent more vulnerable to external threats.

“It’s important to understand that all of these impacts — climate change, fishing, tourism — are cumulative,” Cassandra Brooks, an assistant professor in environmental studies at the University of Colorado Boulder, wrote in an email. “Given the sheer carbon footprint of Antarctic tourism, and the rapid growth in the industry, these operations will become increasingly difficult to justify.”

The way forward

Antarctic Treaty parties are aware that tourism growth will require a new approach. But it’s not clear what steps they will take, nor how quickly they will act. And reaching consensus — which is what decision-making within the Antarctic Treaty system requires — can be a slow and arduous process.

In April 2019, the government of the Netherlands hosted an informal meeting to discuss how to manage Antarctic tourism. The participants — including representatives of 17 treaty parties, IAATO and ASOC, the civil society group, as well as other experts — identified “key concerns” related to the predicted growth in ship tourism: pressure on sites where tourists visit, the expansion of tourism to new areas, and the possible rise in tour operators who choose not to join IAATO, among other issues.

The group’s recommendations were presented to the Antarctic Treaty’s Committee for Environmental Protection as well as to the most recent annual meeting of the treaty parties in July. The discussions seemed to go in the right direction, said Ms. Christian, but they are still a long way from implementing major changes.

Stronger regulations could come in many forms, including a prohibition on potentially disruptive activities such as heli-skiing or jet-skiing, both of which are currently allowed; a general strengthening of the Antarctic Treaty system’s existing guidelines for visitors , which already instruct people not to litter, take away souvenirs, or get too close to wildlife, among other things. Parties to the Antarctic Treaty system could also establish protected areas that could be made off limits to tourist vessels, or agree to enact domestic laws to enable authorities to prosecute visitors for Antarctic misbehavior (penguin cuddling, for instance) after they return home.

Or the treaty parties could go even further: They could require all passenger vessels to obtain IAATO membership before being granted a permit, or set a cap on the total number of visitors allowed each season. Most observers agree that both steps would be politically very difficult to enact, mainly because treaty parties have diverging views of what Antarctic tourism should look like.

Tour operators and some academics maintain that tourism in Antarctica is vital because it creates awareness and builds a network of people who will go home to fight for stronger protections in the region. but — as with scientific research, or any human activity in Antarctica — the risks and potential negative impacts of tourism must be weighed against its benefits.

Whatever policy steps might be on the table, self-regulation in the tourism industry is no longer sufficient, said Ms. Brooks, who adds that Antarctica is already straining under its many pressures.

“IAATO is truly amazing in what they have accomplished, but it’s difficult to imagine how they will manage to control this burgeoning industry,” she wrote in an email. “It’s equally difficult to imagine how more than 78,000 people visiting Antarctica as tourists won’t have a negative impact on the region.”

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The Last Place on Earth Any Tourist Should Go

Take Antarctica off your travel bucket list.

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This article was featured in One Story to Read Today, a newsletter in which our editors recommend a single must-read from The Atlantic , Monday through Friday. Sign up for it here.

On the southernmost continent, you can see enormous stretches of wind-sculpted ice that seem carved from marble, and others that are smooth and green as emerald. You can see icebergs, whales, emperor penguins. Visitors have described the place as otherworldly, magical, and majestic. The light, Jon Krakauer has said, is so ravishing, “you get drugged by it.”

Travelers are drawn to Antarctica for what they can find there—the wildlife, the scenery, the sense of adventure—and for what they can’t: cars, buildings, cell towers. They talk about the overwhelming silence. The Norwegian explorer Erling Kagge called it “the quietest place I have ever been.” All of these attractions are getting harder to find in the rest of the world. They’re disappearing in Antarctica too. The continent is melting; whole chunks are prematurely tumbling into the ocean. And more people than ever are in Antarctica because tourism is on a tear.

Four decades ago, the continent saw only a few hundred visitors each summer. More than 100,000 people traveled there this past season, the majority arriving on cruises. In the context of a land this size, that number may not sound like a lot. It’s roughly the capacity of Michigan Stadium, or about the attendance of the CES tech conference back in January.

But it’s also a record—and a 40 percent jump over 2019–20, the season before the coronavirus pandemic brought Antarctic travel to a near standstill. And although scientists who visit the continent to study its life and demise have a clear place here, many sightseers bring a whiff of “last-chance tourism”—a desire to see a place before it’s gone, even if that means helping hasten its disappearance. Perversely, the climate change that imperils Antarctica is making the continent easier to visit; melting sea ice has extended the cruising season. Travel companies are scrambling to add capacity. Cruise lines have launched several new ships over the past couple of years. Silversea’s ultra-luxurious Silver Endeavour is being used for “fast-track” trips—time-crunched travelers can save a few days by flying directly to Antarctica in business class.

Overtourism isn’t a new story. But Antarctica, designated as a global commons, is different from any other place on Earth. It’s less like a too-crowded national park and more like the moon, or the geographical equivalent of an uncontacted people. It is singular, and in its relative wildness and silence, it is the last of its kind. And because Antarctica is different, we should treat it differently: Let the last relatively untouched landscape stay that way.

Traveling to Antarctica is a carbon-intensive activity. Flights and cruises must cross thousands of miles in extreme conditions, contributing to the climate change that is causing ice loss and threatening whales, seals, and penguins. By one estimate, the carbon footprint for a person’s Antarctic cruise can be roughly equivalent to the average European’s output for a year, because cruise ships are heavy polluters and tourists have to fly so far. Almost all travel presents this problem on some level. But “this kind of tourism involves a larger carbon footprint than other kinds of tourism,” says Yu-Fai Leung, a professor in the College of Natural Resources at North Carolina State University who has done extensive research on Antarctic travel.

Antarctic tourism also directly imperils an already fragile ecosystem. Soot deposits from ship engines accelerate snow melting. Hikes can damage flora that take well over a decade to regrow in the harsh environment. Humans risk introducing disease and invasive species. Their very presence, North Carolina State scientists have shown, stresses out penguins, and could affect the animals’ breeding. Yet as tourism gets more popular, companies are competing to offer high-contact experiences that are more exciting than gazing at glaciers from the deck of a ship. Last year, for instance, a company named White Desert opened its latest luxury camp in Antarctica. Its sleeping domes, roughly 60 miles from the coast, are perched near an emperor-penguin colony and can be reached only by private jet. Guests, who pay at least $65,000 a stay, are encouraged to explore the continent by plane, Ski-Doos, and Arctic truck before enjoying a gourmet meal whose ingredients are flown in from South Africa.

All of this adds up. A recent study found that less than a third of the continent is still “pristine,” with no record of any human visitation. Those untouched areas don’t include Antarctica’s most biodiverse areas; like wildlife—and often because of wildlife—people prefer to gather in places that aren’t coated in ice. As more tourists arrive, going deeper into the continent to avoid other tourists and engage in a wider range of activities, those virgin areas will inevitably shrink.

The international community has banned mining on the continent, and ships aren’t allowed to use heavy fuel oil in its waters. Yet tourism is still only loosely regulated. “I think it’s fair to say the rules are just not good enough,” Tim Stephens, a professor at the University of Sydney who specializes in international law, told me. There’s no single central source of governance for tourism. The Antarctic Treaty System imposes broad environmental restrictions on the continent. Individual governments have varying laws that regulate operators, ships, and aircraft. The International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators has extensive guidelines it requires its members to follow, out of genuine concern and, perhaps, to ward off more rigorous outside regulation.

Gina Greer, IAATO’s executive director, says the organization is proactive about protecting Antarctica. Visitors are asked to keep a distance from wildlife, decontaminate their shoes to keep novel bugs and bacteria at bay, stay on established paths, and more. Because tour operators visit the same sites repeatedly, they can spot changes in the landscape or wildlife populations and notify scientists.

This spring, IAATO added a new slow zone—an area where ships have to reduce their speed to 10 knots because whales have been congregating there in greater numbers—to those implemented in 2019. “It’s amazing to see how members come together and make decisions that may be difficult but are necessary,” Greer told me.

Still, these are all essentially voluntary behaviors. And some operators don’t belong to IAATO.

Accidents also have a way of happening despite the best intentions. In 2007, the MS Explorer, a 250-foot expedition cruise ship, sank near penguin breeding grounds on the South Shetland Islands, leaving behind a wreck and a mile-long oil slick. Most cruise ships are registered in what Stephens calls “flag-convenient countries” that are lax on oversight. “If you have a cruise ship going down in Antarctica, it’s not going to be the same seriousness as the Exxon Valdez,” he said. “But it’s not going to be pretty.”

To reduce crowding and environmental pressure, modern-day tourists have been asked to think twice about visiting a slew of alluring places: Venice, Bali, Big Sur. But the calculus can get complicated—in almost any destination, you have locals who are trying to improve (or just sustain) their lot.

Most of the Maldives, for instance, lies just a meter above sea level. “Climate change is an existential threat,” Aminath Shauna, the minister of environment, climate change, and technology, said in an interview with the IMF in 2021. “There’s no higher ground we can run to.”

Within decades, the decadent overwater bungalows that the islands are known for could be underwater bungalows. But more than a quarter of the country’s GDP comes from tourism. So this year, the Maldives hopes to welcome 1.8 million tourists—all of whom can reach it only by plane or boat rides that indirectly contribute to rising seas.

That conflict doesn’t exist in Antarctica. With no human residents, it’s the rare place that still belongs to nature, as much as that’s possible. It is actually most valuable to us when left wild, so that it can continue to act as a buffer against climate change, a storehouse of the world’s fresh water, and a refuge for birds, whales, seals, fish, and even the krill that the entire marine ecosystem depends on.

Some argue that tourists become ambassadors for the continent—that is, for its protection and for environmental change. That’s laudable, but unsupported by research, which has shown that in many cases Antarctic tourists become ambassadors for more tourism.

Antarctica doesn’t need ambassadors; it needs guardians. Putting this land off-limits would signify how fragile and important—almost sacred—it is. Putting it at risk to give deep-pocketed tourists a sense of awe is simply not worth it.

We have more than a continent—or even our planet—at stake. The treaties that govern Antarctica helped lay the foundation for space agreements. Space is already crowded and junked up with human-made debris. Tourism will only add to the problem; experts are warning that it is intensely polluting and could deplete the ozone layer. If we can’t jointly act to put Antarctica off limits, our view of the moon may eventually be marred. Imagine a SpaceX–branded glamping resort, or a Blue Origin oasis stocked entirely by Amazon’s space-delivery business.

As a species, we’re not very good at self-restraint (see: AI). And these days, few arenas exist where individual decisions make a difference. Antarctica could be one of them. Maybe, despite our deepest impulses to explore, we can leave one place in the world alone.

This story is part of the Atlantic Planet series supported by HHMI’s Science and Educational Media Group.

Luxury tourism is landing in Antarctica — but at what cost?

Decked out with wooden flooring, timber bedheads and even leather couches in the dining room, Wolf's Fang looks more like a Nordic guesthouse than a remote outpost in Antarctica.

For around $US48,000 ($68,000) travellers can fly to and spend six days at the luxury polar campsite — taking part in various activities like hiking, abseiling and skiing.

Visitors willing to spend more can also fly within the continent, watch emperor penguins and visit the South Pole.

Once the temporary home of only the toughest explorers and dedicated scientists, Antarctica has seen tourism steadily grow in recent decades.

But there are concerns about the environmental impact on the White Continent. 

So remote, a can of Coke costs $53

Last month, the first-ever Airbus A340 to land in Antarctica touched down on the camp's private blue ice runway.

Capable of carrying up to 254 passengers, the chartered flight was ferrying 23 people and supplies to the camp for this year's summer tourist season.

Wolf's Fang and another camp, Whichaway, are run by White Desert tours, which flies tourists out of Cape Town, South Africa, to an area of Antarctica called Queen Maud Land.

They take a maximum of 12 guests on expeditions but even with such small numbers, the logistics of each trip are immense and expensive. 

"For us, it costs about $US38 ($53) for a can of Coke once it arrives in Antarctica," says White Desert's chief marketing officer, Mindy Roberts, who has just returned from a visit to one of the camps.

"So the cost of our trips is high."

Potatoes and carrots for the camps' food are peeled in Cape Town before departure, "because we've got specific weight restrictions on getting things into the ice and the peelers are heavy," she says.

Other tour companies also operate in Antarctica, in some cases offering private campsites, cruises and skydiving.

Should people be travelling there?

According to the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO), 74,401 visitors travelled to Antarctica with IAATO member operators during the 2019-2020 season — compared to 56,168 visitors of the previous year.

Only 731 visitors were "deep field" tourists, travelling inland by air.

Most Antarctic tourists visit by sea, often with expedition cruises that make brief landings ashore on the Antarctic Peninsula, south of Chile.

While many operators emphasise their commitment to sustainability and ecological sensitivity, some involved in Antarctic research have voiced concern that tourism in Antarctica remains largely self-regulated.

Despite multiple nations — including Australia — having territorial claims to parts of the continent, Antarctica itself isn't governed by one single authority but rather by the Antarctic Treaty, which has been ratified by 54 countries.

That means tourism and visitor behaviour is mainly controlled through guidelines outlined in the Antarctic Treaty system.

Operators also need to fulfil certain requirements to gain membership to IAATO.

Those include the need to conduct environmental impact assessments, and provisional members must carry an IAATO observer aboard to ensure they're adhering to the organisation's standards.

With Antarctic tourism expected to rebound after the COVID-19 pandemic, there are questions around how much longer those guidelines can successfully minimise the impact of visitors to parts of Antarctica — and whether tourists should be travelling there at all.

"When you look at people's ecological footprint to get to Antarctica, it's already unsustainable," says Freya Higgins-Desbiolles, a senior lecturer in tourism management at the University of South Australia.

"I know that some people will say the environmental education that the visitors get will outweigh their damage, because they become advocates for protection, but I think that's a pretty dodgy argument.

"What I'd like to see is firm regulations rather than voluntary codes of conduct."

Ms Roberts says there's a big difference between the mass tourism of cruise ships and the bespoke experiences provided by smaller operators.

"The majority of people that come to us are influencers, they're powerful, they're captains of industry, they're royalty, they're celebrities — people that do have an ability to influence change," Ms Roberts says.

"Antarctic tourism can be done in a sensitive and sensible way … but it's keeping it small.

"Operations in Antarctica are not easy, and so I don't think you're ever going to have even tens of tourism operators that do what we do."

The cumulative impact of visitors

There are many ways human activity can impact the Antarctic environment — from the carbon footprint of planes and ships to the effects of visitors on local flora and fauna.

"Most Antarctic tourism concentrates in a relatively small area in the north-west Antarctic Peninsula and in a discrete number of sites within that area," says Ricardo Roura, a senior advisor with the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition.

"Even if people behave as required, there might be issues to do with the concentration of activities and their cumulative effects."

Mr Roura was a guest on a cruise ship to the Antarctic peninsula in December 2019, at the height of the tourism boom before the pandemic.

"It was kind of crazy, the whole thing, the whole set of activities," he says.

"In some instances, we had to leave the site earlier to let others come in, that kind of thing."

But he says inland tourism is also cause for concern.

"They have a big chunk of the Antarctic as a playground if they have the time and the means to get there," Mr Roura says.

"If land-based tourism expands, then it will open quite a new set of issues to discuss and a new set of concerns for us."

Then there's the potential for pollution.

While the Antarctic Treaty requires waste to be removed, and for operators to have no more than a "minor or transitory" impact on the environment, damage can be unavoidable in the case of an accident.

In 2007, the MS Explorer struck an iceberg while cruising off the Antarctic peninsula and sank, causing an oil spill near penguin breeding grounds.

All 154 people on board survived after being rescued by nearby vessels.

In 2011, the International Maritime Organisation banned ships from using heavy fuel oil in the Antarctic and in 2017, it introduced the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters.

Future of the industry

Tourism researcher at the University of Canterbury, Daniela Liggett, says interest in Antarctica is here to stay.

"I think it will pick up again after the pandemic, there is still an interest in visiting Antarctica as one of the 'last continents' that is still reasonably untouched by human presence," she says.

A spokesperson from IAATO told the ABC that preliminary estimates from May this year suggest about 60,000 people will visit Antarctica in the 2021-2022 season.

Mr Roura says the competition within the industry to offer unique experiences is one of the driving forces behind the growing numbers.

"There is this frenzy sometimes that people need to land in lots of places, they need to see all sorts of wildlife, they need to see all sorts of things and maybe that's just not possible or necessary."

Another driver of tourist numbers? The desire to see untouched wilderness of Antarctica before it disappears.

"'Last-chance tourism' is going to be the phenomenon that's driving the demand for it," says Ms Higgins-Desbiolles.

"But by engaging in last-chance tourism, we're actually causing the very thing that's the problem."

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Everyone, It Seems, Is Cruising to Antarctica

By Megan Spurrell

“I love telling people that Antarctica will be the trip of their lifetime, and they kind of roll their eyes. And then they come back, and they say, ‘You were absolutely right. Antarctica wasn’t just the seventh continent—it was the most amazing experience of my life.’”

James B. McClintock , professor of polar and marine biology at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, has experienced the wonder of the White Continent repeatedly over the past 30 years, on more than 15 research expeditions. But even after three-month stints on the dramatic tundra, at bases like the McMurdo and Palmer stations, McClintock struggles to put the magic of Antarctica into words. It’s the unimaginable scale of the landscape. The huddles of penguins , with no innate fear of humans—it’s ethereal, otherworldly, and yet none of that is enough to describe just how special Antarctica is.

McClintock is far from the only one who feels its pull. Despite the unattainable allure the destination has held for much of the world, Antarctica has, in recent years, hit the mainstream. Travel magazines like ours house  glossy spreads of the imposing blue-and-white landscape. Instagram is flooded with reels and photo dumps of wide-eyed civilians getting their first glimpse of ‘The Ice,’ and wading ashore in borrowed boots. Youtube’s biggest content creators are posting their dispatches (a video from the tireless Mr. Beast of his landing, shared  last month , has nearly 100 million views). Everyone, it seems, is going to Antarctica. 

Hurtigruten travelers visit a penguin colony on Cuverville Island in Antarctica, one of many stops on the popular Antarctic peninsula. 

Okay, maybe not everyone. The final count of visitors to Antarctica during the 2021-2022 tourism season—Antarctica’s austral summer, from October to March— was 23,527 according to the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). ( I was one of those travelers. ) That number represents an infinitesimal 0.00029 percent of the world’s population. And it’s notably less than pre-pandemic figures reported by IAATO, with nearly 75,000 travelers landing on Antarctica in the 2019-2020 season . That pre-pandemic number, though, was the greatest in an overall steady rise from 1991 when IAATO was formed—a year in which a total 6,400 visitors were reported—only stilted by world events like the 2008 financial crisis and, most recently, the COVID-19 pandemic (just two private yachts are said to have made the journey during the 2020-2021 season). The vast majority of this travel is done by cruise ship.

Travel specialists say, that even as tourism rebounds after the pandemic,  interest  in Antarctica cruising is at an all-time high—and they expect bookings to continue to rise. “Interest in Antarctic cruising has been increasing year over year for the past decade,” says  Ashton Palmer , president of Expedition Trips . “We have seen a steady increase as more companies operate trips to Antarctica, and therefore do more marketing to raise awareness—and the desire to travel farther and to more remote locations has become ever more popular.”

Mary Jean Tully , who books guests on luxury lines like Seabourn has seen the same pattern off the back of growing, and ever-more-fabulous industry offerings. “The curiosity has been there for a while, however with more new luxury expedition ships entering the marketplace, the inquiries and bookings we’re receiving are amazing. There is so much interest, now more than ever.” Just this season, Seabourn Cruise Line, Atlas Ocean Voyages, and Silversea Cruises have all put new expedition ships in Antarctic waters (the Seabourn Venture , Atlas World Traveller , and Silversea's Silver Endeavor , respectively).  

Noah Brodsky, the chief commercial officer at Lindblad Expeditions —the company started by Lars Eric Lindblad, who lead the first civilian expedition to the continent in 1966—says the outfitter had their biggest-ever booking day for Antarctica sailings at the start of January 2023, with reservations up 14 percent over their previous record. “We have an unprecedented 20 Antarctica departures in the 2023-2024 season, and five of them are already full,” Brodsky says. He expects 2023 to be a “record-breaking year” for bookings.

Many in the industry attribute this swelling curiosity to COVID-19, even if Antarctica travel was of growing interest prior. “After the pandemic, many people decided to finally tackle their bucket lists,” says biologist Dr. Verena Meraldi, chief scientist for Hurtigruten Expeditions. 

Many, like Palmer, hear from guests who have been to every other continent and are ready for number seven. The tick of climate change’s clock adds an undeniable pressure. “Climate change and fear of its effects on these regions has heightened the urgency—travelers are prioritizing the destination now, before it is too late,” says Torstein Gaustad, an expedition leader on Hurtigruten’s hybrid-powered  MS Fridtjof Nansen . 

This reality is undeniable: Antarctica, a place so many travelers dream of seeing during their lifetimes, is changing quickly.  Studies led by NASA researchers published in August 2023 found that the edge of the Antarctic ice sheet is “shedding icebergs faster than the ice can be replaced,” with estimates of 12 trillion metric tons of ice loss from the continent’s floating ice shelves since 1997. The  British Antarctic Study reports that the mean annual temperature of the Antarctic Peninsula—where the bulk of tourism is focused—rose by more than 37 degrees Fahrenheit (3.2 degrees Celsius) in the second half of the 20th century. Trey Byus, chief expedition officer with Lindblad Expeditions, has personally observed penguin colonies that are “completely re-colonizing elsewhere” due to their changing home. 

What does it mean, then, for thousands of visitors to arrive in ever-increasing numbers by cruise ships? Is this last-chance tourism only speeding up the process?

“The simple answer is that wherever human activity exists in the world, there will always be impacts of some degree, some positive, some negative,” says Amy Berquist, vice president, conservation, education, and sustainability at Lindblad Expeditions-National Geographic voyages. “If operators are not careful, increasing tourism numbers could also mean greater threat, which is why it’s imperative that everyone bold enough to travel there is also bold enough to educate travelers and share knowledge and experience across the industry, to increase safety and a broad-based commitment to responsible travel.” 

Berquist, like many in the industry, believes that Antarctica is well protected by the  Antarctic Treaty and IAATO oversight, among regulations from other bodies. The treaty, first signed in the U.S. in 1959 and now counting 56 nations as signatories, includes  environmental stipulations for travel to the continent. It’s why, on my Viking  Octantis cruise in March 2022, we had all of our clothing aggressively vacuumed before going ashore, to avoid the possibility of introducing foreign specimen; it’s also why only 100 of us, from our ship with over 200 guests onboard, could make a landing at one time.

On a Silversea expedition in Antarctica, guests get a firsthand look at calving glaciers. 

Zodiac expeditions take Silversea guests closer to the continent itself.

IAATO, meanwhile, is an organization of tour operators, agents, and others in the space who have committed to abiding by environmental protocol outlined by the treaty, and then some. “We began observing the trend of increasing interest in the region long ago,” says Lindblad’s Byus. “It’s why, in 1991 we joined with six other private tour operators to found IAATO, establishing the guiding principles for safe and environmentally-friendly private-sector travel to Antarctica.” 

Today, the organization is arguably unlike anything else in the industry. “There’s this whole network set up to keep an eye on each other, and to record things,” says McClintock, “and as far as I can tell, from an outside observer on that system, there’s a lot of peer pressure and it seems to work very well.” 

New rules and regulations are coming from organizations like the Antarctic Treaty committee and IAATO all the time. McClintock played a role in having Zodiacs on all ships going to Antarctica switch from two cycle engines to four cycle, which are cleaner and quieter. “You do not want to see an oily sheen on the water down there, and that was happening with two cycle engines,” he says. In 2010, the International Maritime Organization  banned cruise ships from burning heavy fuel oil in Antarctic waters. “That required a higher quality fuel to be burned, and really knocked out some of the big 2,000 passenger ships that were heading down—and those ships did not have reinforced hulls.” (In other words, a spill possibly waiting to happen, he says.) Dynamic positioning technology allows ships to avoid dropping anchors on the seafloor, preventing damage to sea life; ships have reduced underwater noise pollution, with Viking’s Octantis and Polaris recently receiving SILENT-E notations; Lindblad-NatGeo’s operations are entirely carbon neutral, and single-use plastics have been eliminated onboard.

Jessica Puckett

Caitlin Morton

Olivia Morelli

A Hurtigruten ship is docked off of Peterman Island, as guests go ashore in smaller groups. Only 100 travelers from a single ship can be on land at one time, according to rules set out by the Antarctic Treaty. 

IAATO is a self-governing body, to be clear. And most of the environmental initiatives taking place on cruise ships are at the behest of private companies. But McClintock is among a number of scientists I spoke to who feel confident in the rules and regulations set out, and the efforts made by the industry to get ahead of the impact of tourism. “My sense is that there's a lot of looking over the shoulder of that cruise industry,” says McClintock.

Others are bolstered in their optimism for Antarctic cruising by the fact that there's actual science happening aboard a number of these ships—citizen science, like tracking humpback whales and counting bioplastics in water samples, sure, but also full-on white coat-donning scientists conducting critical research aboard vessels from Viking and Ponant, to name a couple. It’s easy to be skeptical about the value of this work, as a guest—it sounds too easy—but one scientist after another asserts its value. “We’ve sponsored researchers to go along on Ponant trips and do actual frontline scientific research,” says Richard Garriott, president of The Explorer’s Club , which is partnering with Ponant on onboard programming for a series of sailings from 2024-2026. “There's incredible science being brought back that is important for all of us living around the earth right now.” 

With a greatly compromised (read:  rapidly melting ) ice pack in the Arctic, Antarctica’s nearly three mile-deep ice sheet provides a unique environment for  studies on everything from astronomy to wildlife, to systems that could enable humans to survive on Mars, says Garriott, and the landscape allows the use of devices impossible to set up anywhere else on the planet. “The tourists who ride on these expeditions are, in many ways, subsidizing that research,” says Garriott. “This public-private partnership, in the modern era, is almost the only way to get science done.”

When it comes to weighing the pros and cons of leisure tourism, Garriott strongly believes the scale tips in favor of responsible travel. “I wouldn't put tourism as Antarctica’s biggest threat,” says Garriott. “The number one is climate change itself. That is going to deteriorate the ice sheet that covers Antarctica. Tourism is a risk that needs to be managed well, but it absolutely can be done in a way that is non threatening and non harmful. We just have to make sure people choose to do that.”

These are a few of the reasons why McClintock, a lifelong Antarctic research biologist, became a “reluctant cruise naturalist lecturer” who now does one sailing to Antarctica per year with Abercrombie & Kent . After 15 years, he is no longer iffy about cruising to the continent. “My trepidations to tourism in Antarctica were largely unfounded,” he says. “I gave it a shot because I’m very focused on outreach, as it relates to global climate change. Now, I’m sold.” Part of what won McClintock over was not only being able to discuss the subject of our changing planet with guests, but the chance to speak to travelers who, having also seen the fragility of Antarctica in person, are often driven to become ambassadors for the continent when they return home. It’s another sounds-too-good scenario that he says he’s seen in action. 

Guests aboard ships like the Silver Endeavor are often called Antarctica ambassadors—after firsthand seeing the continent, and the impact of climate change, they may be moved to advocate for protection of the fragile environment long after their trip. 

“There’s this element of Antarctic ambassadorship that comes out of this experience, and it’s hard to put an exact metric on it, but I think it’s happening,” says McClintock. “I had somebody who said, ‘I’m going to go back and talk to my congressman who lives down the street.’ Many of them know their senators and congressmen and go back and advocate issues related to climate and conservation. These folks on Antarctica cruises are doers. To me, that’s a big positive.”

Some, of course, hold on to their reservations about tourism—more is more, they say. More people, more pollution, more damage. “While I love the fact that tourism allows a glimpse into this incredible environment resulting in many tourists then becoming a passionate voice for its protection, I do worry about, at least the Peninsula, being overrun with tourism and with that, presenting numerous dangers,” says Maggie Amsler, a biology researcher currently based at Palmer Station on Anvers Island. “Garbage, like plastic water bottles, are increasingly washing up on outer island shores. Smaller, private charters aboard yachts are on the increase, and there seems to be little oversight of their activities. There have been incidents over recent years wherein vessel passengers have been put ashore to explore on islands that are protected or the area has sensitive habitats or wildlife. If the vessel’s crew is not familiar with the local restrictions, what other regulatory aspects of Antarctic cruising are being overlooked?”

Amsler doesn't think the jury is completely out on cruising—she says she “absolutely” sees some value in the ambassadorship—but she is adamant that it is every traveler's responsibility to thoroughly research who they travel with, and to continue to push the industry in the right direction. “Choose wisely when selecting the cruise or tour company,” says Amsler. “Scrutinize how green and sustainable the itineraries and shipboard practices are. When onboard, be sure to hold them accountable for actions and make public any shortcomings experienced.” 

Fortunately, several companies are leading the way on sustainable innovation in the space. "I am very impressed with the advances in sustainability incorporated into the newest wave of expedition vessels," says Palmer. "Standouts include Quark Expeditions’ Ultramarine , Lindblad Expeditions-National Geographic Resolution and Endurance , and Seabourn’s Venture and Pursuit . These state-of-the-art vessels are pushing the envelope with their innovative and environmentally friendly design and offer travelers the most sustainable approach to remote exploration."

Travelers shouldn't make any sacrifices on their expectations for thoughtful Antarctic cruises. And if a company falls short on sustainable policies, passengers should be vocal. “There needs to be increasing pressure to make sure that the regulations are being followed,” adds McClintock.

All of this puts an enormous responsibility—and power—in the hands of leisure travelers to Antarctica. It's about not being the person using a plastic water bottle on-board, for starters—but that type of thinking has to continue well before and after the trip. It's as simple as carbon offsets for flights , and reducing single-use plastics, and even rethinking our relationship to driving, which according to Garriott, is responsible for a carbon footprint greater than aviation and Antarctic cruising combined. Amsler agrees: “Antarctica can be protected by everyone by developing sustainable, earth-friendly practices at home." 

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Antarctica cruises are more popular than ever. Experts say they need more regulations

Cruises to Antarctica, already popular, have grown dramatically in recent years. Scientists and advocacy groups say tighter regulation is needed to minimize the impact on wildlife and the environment.

JUANA SUMMERS, HOST:

With the wind-down of COVID-19 restrictions, travel has surged, including to exotic places like Antarctica. More than 100,000 people are expected to visit the southernmost continent this season. That's 40% more than the highest number of visitors seen in past years. As NPR's Greg Allen reports, activists and scientists are concerned about the impact on Antarctica's wildlife and environment.

GREG ALLEN, BYLINE: One hundred thousand visitors to the nation's fifth-largest continent may not sound like much, but nearly all trips take tourists to one area, the Antarctic Peninsula.

UNIDENTIFIED PERSON: Oh, my god. We're in Antarctica, and we're watching penguins. This is...

ALLEN: It's the most northerly part of the continent with coastal areas that are ice-free and teeming with wildlife. Claire Christian is with the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, a partnership of environmental groups.

CLAIRE CHRISTIAN: And the Antarctic Peninsula is actually - it's experiencing a lot of things all at once. There's an increase in tourism. There's an increase in interest in fishing for Antarctic krill. And the peninsula is one of the fastest-warming areas on the planet.

ALLEN: Only cruise ships with 500 or fewer passengers can land visitors on the continent. Even so, the demand for access to a few dozen sites on the Antarctic Peninsula requires elaborate scheduling, Christian says during the season, several tour groups visit the most popular sites with penguins each day, sometimes with negative effects.

CHRISTIAN: For example, some tourists went off the prescribed path at a visitation site, and they trampled it, and several years later, nothing had recovered. So there is some vegetation in Antarctica that did not recover, so we know that humans can have an impact there.

ALLEN: Christian's coalition, along with scientists and some governments, want the group of nations that oversees Antarctica to take a firmer hand in regulating tourism there. Yu-Fai Leung is a professor at North Carolina State University who studied the impact visitors have on penguins. He says some colonies seem resilient and aren't greatly disturbed by tourist groups, but his research shows, when penguins are nesting, chicks are vulnerable to predators and the elements, and visitors can be a dangerous distraction

YU-FAI LEUNG: If they are forced out of their nest for even for a few seconds, the babies are in big jeopardy because of the predator, but also because of the temperature.

ALLEN: On her trips to the region, Antarctic ecologist Ally Kristan says she's observed tour groups ignoring guidelines, disturbing wildlife and also taking safety risks.

ALLY KRISTAN: There were staff that were putting their hands in the water by actively hunting leopard seals and encouraging guests to do the same, which is a tremendous safety concern.

ALLEN: Leopard seals have been known to attack and sometimes puncture inflatable zodiac boats used by guides. Tours to the Antarctic aren't cheap, ranging from several thousand to as much as $100,000 for a seven-day trip to an emperor penguin colony near the South Pole. Emperor penguins are listed as an endangered species because of fears they could be wiped out with the decline of sea ice linked to climate change. Kristan is concerned about plans by one company to fly visitors by helicopter to a vulnerable emperor penguin colony.

KRISTAN: Even if you fly a helicopter above, you can still be causing negative physiological impacts to this species.

ALLEN: Currently, the most important group overseeing tourism in the Antarctic is the industry itself. The International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators has received mostly good marks for its guidelines aimed at protecting wildlife and the environment. The group's executive director, Gina Greer, expects the number of visitors to the continent will continue to grow, but she dislikes a phrase some use in the travel industry - last chance tourism.

GINA GREER: It shouldn't be for someone - that last chance kind of perspective - when they come home, our goal and our hope is that they come back changed, and they have a better appreciation for the world as well as for the impact that all of us make down there.

ALLEN: The 50 nations that are part of the Antarctic Treaty system have been discussing measures to manage the growth of tourism, possibly limiting activities, the opening of new sites for visitors, even the length of the season. More discussions are planned to the group's upcoming conference later this month in Finland. Greg Allen, NPR News.

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Tourism in Antarctica: A Growing Industry

February 5th, 2018 / Burnham Arlidge

Tourism in Antarctica has risen dramatically over the past decade.

Initially discovered and visited for research purposes and the whaling industry, the white continent is now a popular tourist destination.

This page provides a wealth of information on tourism in Antarctica and the changes over time that the Antarctica tourism industry has witnessed.

The rise of tourism in Antarctica

Beginning in the late 1950s, tourism in Antarctica supposedly began when 500 passengers paid to be taken to the South Shetland Islands.

This idea of expedition cruises with an educational purpose was continued when Lars-Eric Lindblad then guided a traveller’s expedition to Antarctica in 1966.

Sea tourism in Antarctica was the predominant way to see the Antarctic Peninsula throughout the 1960s. Infact, Lindblad arguably began the expedition cruise industry when he built the world’s first expedition ship in 1969.

It wasn’t until the 1970s that sightseeing air flights began from Australia and New Zealand.

Prior to the beginnings of tourism in Antarctica, visits to the continent were limited to early explorers and the seal and whaling industry.

Seals were hunted from the early 1800s, with the fur seal almost wiped out by 1830. Whaling began in 1904 with the construction of the whaling station at Grytviken, South Georgia. In 1986, the International Whaling Commission suspended all commercial whaling .

Tourism in Antarctica was initially driven by the mystery surrounding Antarctica’s landscape. Antarctica’s wilderness, extreme climate and isolation from the rest of the world all contribute to its increased popularity over the years.

From 1999-2000, an estimated 15,000 visitors travelled to Antarctica on sea cruises. From 2009-2010, this figure has more than doubled, with tourism in Antarctica rising to 37,000 people .

IAATO and landing in Antarctica

In 1991, seven Antarctica tour operators came together as a single organisation – the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) . This group promoted and practiced environmentally-responsible tourism in Antarctica.

Even today, with over 100 member-organisations across the world, they develop standards and practices to better protect the Antarctica environment.

Since IAATO was formed, records of tour itineraries have been kept. These show that 200 sites have been visited in the Antarctic Peninsula region since 1989. These records indicate that tourism in Antarctica is concentrated in less than 35 of these sites.

No country owns Antarctica and the Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1961 in order to protect the environment and to promote scientific cooperation in Antarctica. As such, tourism in Antarctica does not require a visa but does require permission.

Tour operators usually obtain this if you are travelling on a cruise.

Sea cruises

Most of the sea cruises for tourism in Antarctica depart from Ushuaia in Argentina. This type of cruise usually lasts between 10 and 21 days and the majority of tours to Antarctica nowadays are on a cruise ship.

Today, there are a whole host of itineraries which travelers can choose from. Due to the rapid increase in tourism in Antarctica, the demand for more unique Antarctica trips is high.

Stepping onto the white continent, kayaking and even camping on the ice are just some of the activities that are now available.

Tourism in Antarctica is ongoing between November and March each year. This is the summer season when temperatures are higher and sea ice melts enough to allow access to cruise ships.

Tourism in Antarctica focuses around the diverse wildlife, the stunning icescapes and Antarctica’s rich history.

Scenic flights

However, cruise ships are not the only way of seeing the Antarctic Peninsula. Tours of the continent are increasingly done by scenic flights and you can also land on some parts of Antarctica and take a cruise ship from there.

Scenic flights from Australia began in 1977. These fly over the continent without stopping and land back at the departure airport. These flights take around 14 hours, with 4 hours flying over Antarctica. Antarctica Flights, Qantas and Air New Zealand all offer this sightseeing tour of Antarctica.

Evolving over the last decade, some itineraries now also offer the option to fly to Antarctica. Landing on King George Island, these fly-cruises are catered for tourists who have less time on their hands, or for those who badly suffer from sea sickness .

From King George Island, passengers can then take a cruise around the Antarctic Peninsula and then fly back.

As is evident, the scope and range of tourism in Antarctica has dramatically changed over the course of 60 years. From the initial sea cruises to modern fly-cruise options, the industry of tourism in Antarctica has certainly developed.

With the introduction of IAATO, there are now many regulations surrounding tourism in Antarctica. It is clear that standards and practices are being regularly updated to ensure the environmental impacts of tourism in Antarctica are minimized.

As tourism steadily increases in the white continent, it’s ecological impacts are monitored with the hope to preserve this dramatic wilderness well into the future.

If you have any further questions or queries regarding tourism in Antarctica, please just leave a message below and we’ll get back to you within 24 hours.

Thank you and happy travelling!

Posted on Feb 05, 2018

About the Author Burnham Arlidge

Burnham started his career as a professional tennis player before retiring due to injury. Since then Burnham has thrown himself into adventure travel. He has visited some of the most iconic and obscure parts of the planet - his most memorable experience is Antarctica!

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Impacts of tourism in Antarctica

• Between 1992 and 2020 the number of tourists visiting Antarctica increased ten-fold and continues to grow, meaning the negative environmental impacts of tourism are likely to increase.
• Existing regulations do not adequately protect the environment of Antarctica from tourism impacts, which include damage at visitor sites and along travel routes, and the disturbance of wildlife.
• The negative impacts of tourism compound other threats to Antarctica’s biodiversity, which risk the survival of many species and the continent’s ability to help regulate the global climate.
• Tourism in Antarctica must be effectively and proactively managed, with new safeguards based on science and informed by best practice.

What is the issue?

Since the early 1990s tourism in Antarctica has grown continually . Between 1992 and 2020, the number of tourists arriving increased ten-fold, rising to 75,000 in the 2019-20 season and again to 104,897 in the 2022-23 season.

Antarctic tourism has both positive and negative impacts. The Antarctic tourist experience can be both inspirational and educational, fostering public support and investment for the continent’s protection.

On the other hand, Antarctic travel has a high carbon footprint. Tourist activities can also cause damage at visitor sites and along travel routes, and disturb wildlife . For example, research has shown that tourist activities are causing penguin species to change their reproductive and social behaviours.

Tourists interacting with a Gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua) colony at a popular visitor site

Measures are therefore needed to better protect the environment of Antarctica from tourism , but there are gaps in existing governance frameworks.

All activities in Antarctica are regulated through the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), which includes The Madrid Protocol. The Protocol provides broad rules for tourism, however day-to-day management is mostly self-regulated by the industry through guidance issued by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO).

Many researchers and conservation organisations are concerned that self-regulation is no longer sufficient to protect Antarctica’s wildlife and ecosystems from the impacts of tourism.

Why is this important?

The protection of the Antarctic environment is vital to achieve global goals for nature, climate and sustainable development.

However, as the Antarctic tourism industry grows and diversifies, the severity of its negative environmental impacts is likely to increase . If left unchecked, these impacts will be exacerbated by the effects of climate change . For example, reduced sea ice and increased ice-free land areas mean that tourists can visit previously inaccessible places, and a warmer climate will allow the industry to extend the tourist season.

The negative impacts of tourism compound other threats to Antarctica’s wildlife and ecosystems , such as climate change and invasive alien species .

Combined, these threaten the continent’s unique biodiversity, including species such as krill, fish, seals, whales, penguins and other seabirds , as well as putting at risk Antarctica’s ability to help regulate the global climate.

Visitor trends, fastest-growing source markets, distribution of visitor sites and growth in tourism activities

What can be done?

Tourism in Antarctica must be effectively and proactively managed, with decisions based on science and informed by best practice .

Such an approach should consider projections of tourism and climate trends, and will require the cooperation of stakeholders including the tourist industry (IAATO and its members), researchers, conservation organisations and governments (via national Antarctic programmes).

More research is needed to inform the policies and implementation of this management approach. All proposed visitor sites and tourist activities should be evaluated using the precautionary principle . Researchers should explore the ecological impacts of tourist activities at local and regional levels, assess existing guidelines and whether tourism operators comply with them, and identify the gaps in current protections.

It is likely new safeguards will be needed , which could include stronger protections within the Antarctic Treaty System or specifying the appropriate type, amount, location and route of tourism activities in the management plans for all Antarctic protected areas.

Continual monitoring of tourism impacts is essential to assess and refine the effectiveness of new protections. Governments, research funders and the tourism industry should support monitoring programmes and help coordinate research activities.

Researchers should develop indicators that go beyond counting visitor numbers , and reflect wider impacts on Antarctica’s biodiversity, wilderness and ecosystem services.

Efforts should be made to enhance the positive impacts of tourism as a conservation tool . Measures could include incorporating more conservation education into visitors’ schedules, and involving tourists in Antarctic citizen science programmes in which members of the public help gather data for research projects.

Researchers should also evaluate how visiting Antarctica changes tourists’ long-term behaviour.

Where can I get more information?

IUCN WCC 2016 Resolution 032  Achieving representative systems of protected areas in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean  

Strategy for IUCN’s Programme and Policy on Antarctic Issues (IUCN, 2009)

A Strategy for Antarctic Conservation (IUCN, 1991)

Tourism and Non-governmental Activities (ATS, 2022)

Proactive Management of Antarctic Tourism: Time for a Fresh Approach. ATCM XLII, IP 26 (ATS, 2019)

Cajiao D, Benayas J, Tejedo P, Leung Y-F. Adaptive Management of Sustainable Tourism in Antarctica: A Rhetoric or Working Progress?  Sustainability . 2021; 13(14):7649. doi.org/10.3390/su13147649

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World News in Brief: Sustainable tourism boost, record Antarctic sea ice melt

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As the climate crisis threatens the tourist industry and the communities who depend on it, greening the tourism sector is the only way forward.

That’s the message from UN chief António Guterres on World Tourism Day observed on Wednesday.

According to the UN World Tourism Organization ( UNWTO ), tourism employs one in every 10 people on Earth. 

To protect tourism jobs, Mr. Guterres said that governments and businesses must invest in sustainable and resilient practices, embrace renewable energy, and better protect the “biodiversity and ecological balance” of all destinations.

The UN chief stressed that targeted investments can deliver jobs and support local businesses and industries while mitigating the environmental impacts of tourism.

“Investing in sustainable tourism is investing in a better future for all,” he said.

Maritime transport must decarbonize ‘as soon as possible’: UNCTAD

Action is urgently needed to combat surging carbon emissions in the shipping industry, the UN trade and development body UNCTAD said on Wednesday.

Ahead of World Maritime Day on 28 September, UNCTAD called for cleaner fuels, digital solutions and clear and universal carbon regulations in an industry accounting for over 80 per cent of the world’s trade volume, in which emissions have risen by one fifth over the past decade. 

The trade body’s Secretary-General Rebeca Grynspan insisted that maritime transport needs to decarbonize “as soon as possible”, while ensuring economic growth. 

“Balancing environmental sustainability, regulatory compliance and economic demands is vital for a prosperous, equitable and resilient future for maritime transport,” she said.

Investment in green technologies is urgent as nearly 99 per cent of the global shipping fleet still relies on conventional fuels, and commercial vessels are on average over 22 years old.

UNCTAD reports that up to an additional $28 billion will be required annually to decarbonize ships by 2050 and up to $90 billion will be needed each year to develop infrastructure for entirely carbon-neutral fuels by 2050.

Full decarbonization could double annual fuel expenses, potentially affecting small island developing states and least developed countries that rely heavily on maritime transport.

Antarctica sea ice falls well below previous record low: WMO

And in another climate alert, Antarctic sea ice has fallen well below its previous record low of lasts year, according to data from the United States Government monitoring service,  said the UN weather agency late on Tuesday.

Having reached its maximum level during winter in the southern hemisphere, it has dipped below 17 million square kilometres for the first time since records began in 1979.

That is a full million km² below 2022, said the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) – an area greater than the size of Egypt .

One of the US National Snow and Ice Data Center scientists issuing the alert said it was far outside anything seen before and “almost mind-blowing”.

The consequences of continued ice melt could have far-reaching consequences for long-term seasonal evolution, said WMO. 

Scientists with WMO’s Global Cryosphere Watch are on alert to see if this is the start of a new worrying trend due to rising emissions in the atmosphere and ocean.

“The 2023 Antarctic sea-ice deficit has direct impacts on the climate- and ecosystems, both nearby as well as far field, including at lower latitudes, which are home to the majority of human population and their economic interests,” said Dr Petra Heil, an expert from the Australia Antarctic Division and part of WMO’s Global Cryosphere Watch.

“There is growing concern about rapid changes in the cryosphere – melting sea ice, ice sheets and glaciers,” says Omar Baddour, chief of climate monitoring at WMO. 

“The drop in Antarctic sea ice this year has been really dramatic. What happens in Antarctica and the Arctic affects the entire globe,” he added.

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Tourism in Antarctica

Disclaimer: Some posts on Tourism Teacher may contain affiliate links. If you appreciate this content, you can show your support by making a purchase through these links or by buying me a coffee . Thank you for your support!

Tourism in Antarctica is big business. But why is this industry so important and what does it all mean? Read on to find out…

The geography of Antarctica 

The tourism industry in antarctica, statistics about tourism in antarctica , the most popular tourist attractions in antarctica, the most popular types of tourism in antarctica, impacts of tourism in antarctica, faqs about tourism in antarctica, to conclude: tourism in antarctica.

Antarctica, the last great wilderness on Earth, remains a frontier of unparalleled allure and mystique. With its pristine landscapes and untouched ecosystems, it draws intrepid travellers and researchers alike. This article examines the intricacies and challenges of the evolving tourism industry in this frozen realm.

Antarctica is a vast and unique continent located at the southernmost part of the Earth. It is often referred to as the “White Continent” due to its extensive ice cover. Here is an overview of the geography of Antarctica:

• Antarctica is situated almost entirely within the Antarctic Circle, surrounded by the Southern Ocean. It is the southernmost continent and is geographically isolated from other landmasses.

Size and Landmass:

• Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, covering approximately 14 million square kilometers (5.4 million square miles). It is larger than Europe and almost twice the size of Australia. The continent is divided into two regions: East Antarctica and West Antarctica, separated by the Transantarctic Mountain Range.

Climate and Weather:

• Antarctica is known for its extreme cold and harsh weather conditions. It holds the record for the lowest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth, reaching as low as -89.2 degrees Celsius (-128.6 degrees Fahrenheit). The continent experiences strong winds, frequent snowfall, and long periods of darkness during the winter months.

Ice and Glaciers:

• Antarctica is covered by a massive ice sheet, averaging about 2.3 kilometers (1.4 miles) in thickness. This ice sheet holds around 90% of the world’s freshwater. The ice extends beyond the continent’s land borders, forming floating ice shelves that surround Antarctica. The most famous of these is the Ross Ice Shelf.

Mountains and Peaks:

• The Transantarctic Mountain Range runs across the continent, separating East and West Antarctica. This mountain range includes peaks such as Mount Kirkpatrick and Mount Craddock, reaching elevations of over 4,000 meters (13,000 feet). Mount Vinson, located in the Ellsworth Mountains of West Antarctica, is the highest peak on the continent, standing at 4,892 meters (16,050 feet).

Lakes and Rivers:

• Antarctica has numerous lakes and rivers, although most are covered by ice. Lake Vostok, one of the largest subglacial lakes, lies beneath the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. Lake Whillans and Lake Ellsworth are other notable subglacial lakes. The continent also has ephemeral rivers that flow during the summer months, primarily fed by melting ice and snow.

Wildlife and Biodiversity:

• Despite its harsh conditions, Antarctica is home to a surprising array of wildlife. Various species of seals, whales, and penguins inhabit the coastal regions. The continent also hosts several bird species, including the majestic albatross. Marine life, such as krill and fish, thrives in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica.

Research Stations:

• Antarctica serves as an important hub for scientific research. Several countries operate research stations on the continent, primarily focused on climate studies, geology, biology, and astrophysics. These stations provide valuable insights into Earth’s climate system and help monitor changes in the region.

Antarctic Treaty System:

• To preserve Antarctica’s unique environment and promote scientific cooperation, the Antarctic Treaty System was established in 1959. This international agreement prohibits military activities, mineral mining, and nuclear testing on the continent, while allowing peaceful scientific research and promoting environmental protection.

Tourism and Visitor Guidelines:

• Tourism in Antarctica has grown in recent years, offering visitors a chance to experience the continent’s awe-inspiring landscapes and wildlife. However, strict guidelines are in place to protect the environment, including restrictions on the number of visitors and guidelines for waste management and wildlife interactions.

As one of the world’s most remote and pristine regions, Antarctica’s geography and environmental significance continue to captivate scientists, explorers, and visitors alike.

The tourism industry in Antarctica represents a unique and specialized sector within the global travel and hospitality domain. As one of the world’s last frontiers, Antarctica attracts a select group of adventurous travelers seeking to explore its pristine landscapes, witness its diverse wildlife, and immerse themselves in its extreme and captivating environment. The tourism industry in Antarctica operates under strict regulations and guidelines to ensure the protection of the continent’s fragile ecosystem and to preserve its scientific and environmental values.

Antarctic tourism is primarily facilitated through cruise ships, which serve as the primary means of transportation for visitors to reach the continent. These cruises often depart from ports in South America, such as Ushuaia in Argentina or Punta Arenas in Chile, and traverse the stormy waters of the Southern Ocean to reach the Antarctic Peninsula or nearby islands. Due to the extreme environmental conditions and the need to preserve the pristine nature of Antarctica, the number of tourists allowed to visit the continent is strictly controlled.

The industry’s focus lies in providing travelers with unique experiences and educational opportunities while ensuring minimal impact on the environment. The itineraries typically involve guided shore excursions, wildlife viewing, and educational lectures conducted by knowledgeable naturalists and scientists on board the cruise ships. These activities aim to foster a deeper understanding of the Antarctic ecosystem, its geological formations, and its diverse wildlife, including penguins, seals, whales, and seabirds.

To ensure sustainable tourism practices, the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) plays a crucial role in regulating tourism activities. IAATO sets guidelines for responsible tourism, which include limiting the number of visitors at landing sites, managing waste disposal, and promoting wildlife conservation and habitat protection. Tour operators and cruise companies affiliated with IAATO undergo a rigorous process to comply with these guidelines and maintain high standards of safety and environmental stewardship.

The tourism industry in Antarctica offers benefits to both visitors and the region itself. For travelers, it provides a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to witness the grandeur of Antarctica’s icy landscapes, encounter unique wildlife species, and gain a deeper appreciation for the planet’s natural wonders. Additionally, tourism contributes to local economies in South American port cities, providing employment opportunities and fostering economic growth.

However, the industry also poses challenges and concerns that must be addressed. One significant concern is the potential for environmental impacts, including pollution from cruise ships, disturbances to wildlife, and the introduction of non-native species. To mitigate these impacts, strict regulations and guidelines are enforced, requiring adherence to stringent waste management practices, wildlife observation protocols, and strict biosecurity measures.

In conclusion, the tourism industry in Antarctica represents a specialized sector that offers a unique and awe-inspiring travel experience while upholding stringent environmental protection measures. By adhering to responsible tourism practices and adhering to the guidelines established by organizations such as IAATO, tourism in Antarctica can continue to provide enriching experiences for travelers while safeguarding the continent’s delicate ecosystems and scientific values for future generations.

Now lets put things into perspective. Here are some statistics about tourism in Antarctica:

• Visitor Numbers: The number of tourists visiting Antarctica has been steadily increasing over the years, with approximately 56,000 visitors in the 2019-2020 tourism season.
• Seasonal Variation: Tourism in Antarctica is highly seasonal, with the majority of visits occurring during the austral summer months (November to March) when weather conditions are more favorable.
• Restricted Access: Antarctica’s tourism industry is governed by strict regulations to protect the continent’s fragile ecosystem. Currently, only vessels carrying fewer than 500 passengers are permitted to make landings.
• Cruising as the Primary Mode of Travel: Cruise ships are the primary means of transportation for tourists visiting Antarctica. These ships offer amenities and accommodations to ensure a comfortable experience while navigating the Southern Ocean.
• Environmental Guidelines: The International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) sets guidelines for responsible tourism, focusing on minimizing environmental impacts, managing waste, and preserving wildlife habitats.
• Landing Sites: There are approximately 100 approved landing sites in Antarctica, where tourists can disembark from their cruise ships to explore the continent’s unique landscapes and observe wildlife.
• Wildlife Encounters: Visitors to Antarctica have the opportunity to witness diverse wildlife, including penguins, seals, whales, and seabirds. Close encounters with these animals are a highlight of the Antarctic tourism experience.

8. Educational Programs: Many Antarctic tour operators offer educational programs on board their cruise ships, featuring lectures and presentations by experts in fields such as biology, geology, and climate science to enhance visitors’ understanding of the region.

9. Duration of Visits: Most tourist visits to Antarctica last between 10 and 20 days, including travel time from departure ports in South America to the continent and back.

10. Economic Impact: Antarctic tourism contributes to the economies of the countries involved in supporting the industry, particularly in South American port cities like Ushuaia and Punta Arenas, where cruise departures and associated services generate employment and revenue.

It is important to note that these statistics about tourism in Antarctica may vary from year to year and are subject to change due to factors such as environmental regulations, global events, and ongoing efforts to ensure sustainable tourism practices in Antarctica.

Antarctica, with its pristine and captivating landscapes, offers a range of remarkable tourist attractions that draw visitors from around the world. These attractions showcase the continent’s natural wonders, unique wildlife, and historical significance. In an academic tone, let us delve into some of the most popular tourist attractions in Antarctica:

Antarctic Peninsula:

• The Antarctic Peninsula, extending northward from the continent, is one of the most sought-after destinations. It boasts stunning ice-covered landscapes, towering glaciers, and majestic mountain ranges. Travelers can witness breathtaking scenery and observe wildlife such as penguins, seals, and seabirds thriving in this remote environment.

South Shetland Islands:

• The South Shetland Islands, situated near the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, offer incredible opportunities for exploration. Visitors can witness striking volcanic landscapes, visit research stations, and encounter diverse wildlife, including penguin colonies and elephant seals.

Ross Ice Shelf:

• The Ross Ice Shelf, the largest floating ice shelf in Antarctica, is a captivating attraction. It stretches over an area roughly the size of France and showcases the awe-inspiring beauty of the icy continent. It is also home to iconic landmarks such as Mount Erebus, the southernmost active volcano on Earth.

Lemaire Channel:

• The Lemaire Channel, often referred to as the “Kodak Gap,” is a narrow passage between the mainland and Booth Island. Enclosed by towering snow-covered cliffs, this picturesque channel provides breathtaking views and is a favorite among photographers.

Deception Island:

• Deception Island, an active volcano in the South Shetland Islands, offers a unique experience due to its natural harbor formed by a submerged caldera. Visitors can bathe in geothermally heated waters, explore abandoned whaling stations, and witness the stark contrast between the volcanic landscape and snow-covered surroundings.

Historic Sites:

• Antarctica is also renowned for its historical sites, such as huts used by famous explorers like Ernest Shackleton and Robert Falcon Scott during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. These sites provide a glimpse into the challenges faced by early explorers and the history of human presence on the continent.

Wildlife Encounters:

• One of the primary attractions of Antarctica is its abundant and diverse wildlife. Travelers can observe massive colonies of penguins, including Adélie, gentoo, and chinstrap species. Seal species like Weddell seals and leopard seals can also be spotted, along with various bird species, including albatrosses and petrels.

Icebergs and Glaciers:

• Antarctica’s icebergs and glaciers showcase extraordinary natural formations. These colossal ice structures come in mesmerizing shapes and sizes, offering stunning visuals as they float across the Southern Ocean. The opportunity to witness the calving of icebergs or to sail amidst a field of floating ice is an awe-inspiring experience.

Scientific Research Stations:

• Some tourist itineraries include visits to scientific research stations, providing a glimpse into ongoing scientific endeavors in Antarctica. These stations allow visitors to learn about climate research, glaciology, and various other scientific disciplines, and gain insights into the challenges and discoveries made in this extreme environment.

Zodiac Cruising:

• Zodiac cruises are a popular activity in Antarctica, allowing visitors to explore areas inaccessible by larger vessels. These small inflatable boats provide an up-close experience, enabling travelers to navigate through ice-filled waters and get closer to wildlife, glaciers, and breathtaking ice formations.

These attractions exemplify the unique and extraordinary nature of Antarctica, showcasing its pristine beauty, diverse wildlife, and rich history. It is important to note that visitors to Antarctica must adhere to strict guidelines and regulations to preserve and protect this fragile and pristine environment for future generations to experience and appreciate.

In Antarctica, tourism manifests in various forms, each offering distinct experiences that cater to different interests and preferences. These popular types of tourism in Antarctica encompass a range of activities and expeditions, lets take a look at what these are:

Expedition Cruises:

• Expedition cruises are a popular choice for tourists visiting Antarctica. These voyages typically involve traveling aboard ice-strengthened vessels, designed to navigate through the icy waters of the Southern Ocean. Expedition cruises offer opportunities to explore Antarctica’s awe-inspiring landscapes, visit remote locations, and observe wildlife, while providing comfortable accommodations and amenities on board.

Wildlife and Nature Photography:

• Antarctica’s mesmerizing landscapes and abundant wildlife make it a paradise for photography enthusiasts. Many tourists visit the continent specifically to capture breathtaking shots of icy vistas, towering icebergs, penguins, seals, whales, and a variety of bird species. Photography tours and workshops cater to the specific needs of photographers, providing guidance and access to prime locations for capturing stunning images.

Polar Diving:

• For adventurous and experienced divers, polar diving in Antarctica offers a unique and exhilarating experience. Brave individuals equipped with specialized drysuits and diving equipment can explore the frigid waters and marvel at the underwater beauty, including unique marine life, mesmerizing ice formations, and potentially encounter seals or penguins beneath the surface.

Kayaking and Zodiac Cruising:

• Kayaking and Zodiac cruising are popular activities that allow tourists to explore Antarctica’s icy waters and get closer to its wildlife. Participants can paddle through tranquil bays, weave between icebergs, and observe wildlife up close while maintaining a safe and non-disruptive distance. These activities provide an intimate connection with the environment and offer opportunities for awe-inspiring encounters.

Hiking and Shore Excursions:

• Hiking and shore excursions are an integral part of many Antarctic itineraries. Visitors disembark from their cruise ships to explore designated landing sites and undertake guided walks led by experienced naturalists. These excursions offer the chance to immerse oneself in the unique landscapes, observe wildlife colonies, visit historic sites, and gain insights into Antarctica’s geological and scientific significance.

Education and Scientific Expeditions:

• Antarctica’s scientific and research value attracts educators, scientists, and individuals with a keen interest in understanding the region’s natural processes and environmental changes. Scientific expeditions and educational programs are conducted by various organizations, providing opportunities to participate in ongoing research projects, learn from experts in various fields, and contribute to data collection and analysis.

Historical and Cultural Tourism in Antarctica:

• Antarctica holds a rich history of exploration and human presence. Tourists interested in history and culture can visit historic sites and remnants of early exploration, such as huts and scientific research stations established by famous explorers. These visits provide insights into the challenges faced by early explorers and the enduring human connection to Antarctica.

Expedition Mountaineering:

• Antarctica’s mountain ranges and glaciated terrain attract experienced mountaineers seeking challenging and rewarding expeditions. Climbing enthusiasts can embark on mountaineering adventures, conquering peaks such as Mount Vinson, the highest mountain on the continent. These expeditions demand specialized skills, equipment, and a high level of physical fitness.

Each of these types of tourism in Antarctica offers a distinct perspective and engagement with the continent’s awe-inspiring landscapes, unique wildlife, and rich scientific and historical heritage. It is crucial, however, to approach these activities with a strong commitment to environmental conservation, sustainability, and adherence to strict guidelines to preserve the delicate ecosystem and ensure the long-term viability of Antarctic tourism.

The tourism industry in Antarctica has both positive and negative impacts on the continent’s social, environmental, and economic aspects. Understanding these impacts is crucial for sustainable management and ensuring the long-term preservation of this unique and fragile ecosystem. Let us examine the impacts of tourism in Antarctica:

Positive Social Impacts of Tourism in Antarctica:

a. Education and Awareness: Tourism in Antarctica provides an opportunity for visitors to gain a deeper understanding of the region’s scientific significance, climate change, and environmental conservation. This can foster a sense of environmental stewardship and inspire individuals to advocate for the protection of Antarctica.

b. Cultural Exchange: Tourism in Antarctica facilitates cultural exchange between tourists and the small community of scientists, researchers, and support staff residing in Antarctica. This exchange can promote cultural understanding, global cooperation, and the sharing of knowledge and experiences.

c. Economic Opportunities: Antarctic tourism contributes to the economic development of countries involved in supporting the industry. It generates employment opportunities, particularly in South American port cities, providing income and improving the livelihoods of local communities.

Negative Social Impacts of Tourism in Antarctica:

a. Disturbance to Wildlife: The presence of tourists can cause disturbance and stress to wildlife, particularly if guidelines and regulations are not followed. Noise, overcrowding, and invasive behavior can disrupt natural behaviors, breeding patterns, and nesting sites, affecting the well-being and survival of wildlife populations.

b. Safety Risks: The harsh and unpredictable Antarctic environment poses inherent risks to tourists. Accidents, extreme weather conditions, and remote locations can present challenges for search and rescue operations, potentially jeopardizing the safety of visitors and emergency responders.

c. Cultural and Heritage Impact: Increased tourist activity in Antarctica may impact the preservation of cultural and historical sites, such as the huts and relics of early explorers. Inadequate management and visitor behavior can lead to damage or degradation of these important cultural heritage sites.

Positive Environmental Impacts of Tourism in Antarctica:

a. Conservation Efforts: The tourism industry in Antarctica plays a role in promoting the conservation and protection of the continent’s fragile ecosystems. Responsible tourism operators adhere to strict guidelines, ensuring minimal impact on the environment, managing waste appropriately, and protecting sensitive areas from human disturbance.

b. Research Support: Some tourism activities contribute to scientific research efforts in Antarctica. Tourists may participate in citizen science programs, data collection, and environmental monitoring, providing valuable information for ongoing scientific studies.

Negative Environmental Impacts of Tourism in Antarctica:

a. Pollution and Waste: The transportation of tourists to Antarctica, primarily by cruise ships, can contribute to pollution through greenhouse gas emissions and the discharge of untreated wastewater. Strict regulations and waste management practices are in place to minimize these impacts, but compliance is essential to prevent pollution.

b. Introduction of Non-Native Species: Tourism activities can inadvertently introduce non-native species, such as seeds, spores, or insects, which may disrupt the delicate Antarctic ecosystem and threaten native species that have evolved in isolation.

c. Habitat Disturbance: Uncontrolled access, excessive visitation, and improper behavior can result in habitat disturbance, particularly in fragile coastal areas. Trampling of vegetation, erosion, and alteration of nesting sites can have long-lasting negative effects on the local flora and fauna.

Positive Economic Impacts of Tourism in Antarctica:

a. Employment and Economic Growth: Antarctic tourism contributes to the economies of countries involved in supporting the industry. It generates employment opportunities, including guides, crew members, researchers, hospitality staff, and support services in port cities. This leads to economic growth and improved infrastructure.

Negative Economic Impacts of Tourism in Antarctica:

a. Dependency on Tourism: Overreliance on tourism in Antarctica can create economic vulnerability for local communities, especially if there are fluctuations in visitor numbers or unforeseen events that disrupt the industry. Diversification of economic activities is necessary to mitigate this risk.

b. Unequal Distribution of Benefits: The economic benefits of tourism in Antarctica may not be equally distributed among all stakeholders. Local communities and indigenous populations may not always receive a fair share of the economic gains, leading to social inequalities and marginalization.

Understanding the complex and multifaceted impacts of tourism in Antarctica is crucial for implementing sustainable practices, fostering responsible visitor behavior, and ensuring the long-term preservation of this pristine environment. Striking a balance between tourism development and environmental protection is essential to safeguard Antarctica’s unique ecosystems and cultural heritage for future generations.

Now that we know a bit more about tourism in Antarctica, lets answer some of the most common questions on this topic:

Q: Can anyone visit Antarctica?

• A: Yes, anyone can visit Antarctica, but it is primarily accessible through organized tours or cruises arranged by authorized tour operators.

Q: When is the best time to visit Antarctica?

• A: The Antarctic tourism season typically runs from November to March when the weather is relatively milder, and wildlife activity is at its peak. The exact timing may vary depending on the specific activities and experiences you seek.

Q: How long does an Antarctic trip usually last?

• A: Most Antarctic trips range from 8 to 20 days, depending on the itinerary and activities involved. Longer expeditions allow for more comprehensive exploration of the continent.

Q: What kind of wildlife can I expect to see in Antarctica?

• A: Antarctica is home to diverse wildlife, including penguins, seals, whales, seabirds, and various marine species. Visitors can witness these incredible creatures in their natural habitat during their expedition.

Q: How much does a trip to Antarctica cost?

• A: The cost of a trip to Antarctica can vary greatly depending on factors such as the duration, type of expedition, level of luxury, and additional activities. On average, prices range from several thousand to tens of thousands of dollars per person.

Q: Do I need a visa to visit Antarctica?

• A: As there is no permanent population or governing body in Antarctica, there is no visa requirement. However, you may need visas for the countries from which your trip departs or where you transit.

Q: Are there any restrictions on visiting Antarctica?

• A: Yes, visitors to Antarctica must adhere to the regulations set forth by the Antarctic Treaty System. These regulations aim to protect the environment, wildlife, and cultural heritage of the continent.

Q: How do I get to Antarctica?

• A: Most visitors reach Antarctica by embarking on a ship or cruise from Ushuaia, Argentina, or Punta Arenas, Chile. Flights to these gateway cities are typically arranged separately.

Q: What should I pack for a trip to Antarctica?

• A: Packing essentials include warm and waterproof clothing, thermal layers, sturdy boots, gloves, hats, and sunglasses. It is crucial to follow the packing list provided by your tour operator to ensure you have the necessary gear for the extreme Antarctic conditions.

Q: How many people can visit Antarctica at once?

• A: The number of visitors allowed in specific areas is regulated to minimise environmental impact. Typically, the number of passengers on a cruise or expedition ship can range from tens to a few hundred, depending on the vessel’s capacity.

These FAQs and their answers provide a starting point for understanding the key aspects of tourism in Antarctica. However, it is important to consult with authorised tour operators or travel agencies for the most accurate and up-to-date information regarding specific trips, requirements, and guidelines for visiting Antarctica.

Antarctica, the world’s last true frontier, is a breathtaking realm of ice and mystery. As more adventurers set foot on this pristine continent, the implications of tourism come under scrutiny. Balancing the thirst for exploration with the imperative to conserve, it’s vital to consider the delicate ecosystems and unparalleled beauty of Antarctica. The responsibility lies with every visitor to ensure minimal impact on this untouched wilderness. As we reflect on the profound allure of the frozen south, one cannot help but emphasise the importance of preserving Antarctica for generations to come.

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The once-in-a-lifetime holiday to Antarctica that faces up to tough questions

Among the southernmost continent's tourist trade, this cruise combines conservation with leisure.

Antarctica, 16 January, 2024 was a great day to be a penguin counter. It wasn’t a bad day to be a passenger. Waking to sunshine and “bergy bits” bobbing in a tranquil bay, I opened my cabin window to hear the snap, crackle and pop of ice. To the left was an ice floe. Tummy sliding on its surface were three gentoo penguins.

Antarctica is the stuff of travel wish-lists. But it is also one of the fastest-warming places on the planet, prompting many to question the viability of tourism there. 

I rode one of the world's longest, heaviest trains across the desert - for free

Since 1959, an international agreement, the Antarctic Treaty system , has recognised tourism as a legitimate activity on the southernmost continent. 

Meanwhile, the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) was founded in 1991 to promote responsible, commercial travel. Strict rules govern visiting ships and tourists must comply with the Antarctic Treaty Environmental Protocol.

Tourist ships visit in the austral spring and summer, from the end of October until late March, and numbers are rising each year.

When IAATO was founded, approximately 6,400 tourists visited Antarctica . In 2022-3, 60 vessels took 71,346 passengers ashore. Last year, there were also 32,730 “cruise-only” visitors, on ships carrying 500 passengers or more, those not permitted to go ashore.

Rod Downie, chief polar adviser for WWF-UK , says Antarctic tourism is increasing as the continent undergoes “rapid and dramatic change”.

“Whilst such ships can provide an important platform of opportunity for science and conservation, the reduction in Antarctic sea-ice means access to penguin and other seabird colonies earlier in the season and in greater numbers, potentially causing disturbance to species at risk from climate change and at a more vulnerable period in their breeding cycle. We need a clearer, more robust framework through the Antarctic Treaty System for managing this increasing threat to Antarctic wildlife and the environment.”

The passengers I spoke to on my sailing saw it as a once-in-a-lifetime trip. Among the mostly American guests, I met retired lecturers and engineers and a former researcher from Nasa. I visited on Viking Octantis . Ships like this cruise the bays and inlets of the Antarctic peninsula, a finger of land that extends towards the tip of South America.

Biosecurity was fierce. The expedition team spent a day of our Drake Passage crossing hoovering up every seed, strand of hair and bit of fluff. Getting on and off the ship involved a sheep-dip style boot wash and a high-pressure hose down of boots, jackets and trousers.     

The peninsula, an extension of the Andes, is the most accessible and scenic part of the continent with mountains, steep-sided fjords, snowy islands and tranquil bays.

Icebergs lurched from the water. Frosted ridges threw knife-sharp reflections on glassy fjords. Drift ice, peaked like baked Alaska, filled the sea like fallen-down clouds.

On Cuverville Island, home to 4,500 pairs of nesting penguins, we took care to avoid the “penguin highway ”.  

The birds waddled, tobogganed and dashed with curious intent as if the penguin grapevine had got word of a Middle of Lidl special. Expedition staff created paths using poles and watched us like hawks, while also pointing out the distinguishing features of gentoos, Adeliés and chinstraps.  

Talks and lectures were as much a part of the experience as the scenery. There were experts in glaciology, ornithology, marine biology, a whale specialist and two penguin counters from Viking’s scientific partner, Oceanites .  

Viking partners with the Scott Polar Research Institute (SPRI) at the University of Cambridge and hosts Fjord Phyto, a citizen science project examining the impact of melting glaciers on phytoplankton. One morning, we joined a science zodiac to get samples of phytoplankton.

Octantis was built with a laboratory for use by experts engaged in projects relating to environmental change in the polar regions. Geologist and emeritus associate at SPRI, Professor Julian Dowdeswell consulted on its design. 

“Conclusive results need big data sets. Unlike government or university-funded research vessels cruise ships re-visit the same sites several times a year,” he said. 

In the lab, phytoplankton puddled like tapioca under a microscope. Sample pots filled a section of fridge.

“Some are sent to the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and others to the University of La Plata in Argentina ,” said chief scientist Jason Heyden.

At our final briefing, statistics came thick and fast. We’d seen 16 bird species, ice fish, sea stars and volcano sponges underwater, humpbacks, orca and fin whales, several types of seal and thousands of penguins. 

Sadly, in February, avian flu reached mainland Antarctica, a development that feels all the more visceral having seen its birdlife in their natural habitat.

I think back to a far more positive discovery on 16 January. If Octantis hadn’t deviated from its intended route to facilitate a medical evacuation, we would never have called at Astrolabe Island, which has a chinstrap colony that hadn’t been surveyed since 1987.

Here, the penguin counters conducted a survey and discovered an additional colony on Diaz Rock.  

“We’re getting real science done and the more we learn the more likely the environment is to be protected,” said Heyden.

Of course, he would say that. But, as a snapshot of what the future of polar tourism might look like, and with adequate regulation, the “fund; explore; learn; act” model might just work.

Travel essentials Booking it A 12-night Antarctic Explorer cruise costs from £10,095pp in November 2024. Includes flights from Heathrow and return flight from Buenos Aires to Ushuaia, one night in Buenos Aires, transfers, alcoholic drinks with lunch and dinner, daily excursions including kayaking, and Wi-Fi, tipping and access to the Nordic spa, vikingcruises.co.uk Further information iaato.org spri.cam.ac.uk

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‘Simply mind-boggling’: world record temperature jump in Antarctic raises fears of catastrophe

An unprecedented leap of 38.5C in the coldest place on Earth is a harbinger of a disaster for humans and the local ecosystem

O n 18 March, 2022, scientists at the Concordia research station on the east Antarctic plateau documented a remarkable event. They recorded the largest jump in temperature ever measured at a meteorological centre on Earth. According to their instruments, the region that day experienced a rise of 38.5C above its seasonal average: a world record.

This startling leap – in the coldest place on the planet – left polar researchers struggling for words to describe it. “It is simply mind-boggling,” said Prof Michael Meredith, science leader at the British Antarctic Survey. “In sub-zero temperatures such a massive leap is tolerable but if we had a 40C rise in the UK now that would take temperatures for a spring day to over 50C – and that would be deadly for the population.”

This amazement was shared by glaciologist Prof Martin Siegert, of the University of Exeter. “No one in our community thought that anything like this could ever happen. It is extraordinary and a real concern,” he told the Observer . “We are now having to wrestle with something that is completely unprecedented.”

Poleward winds, which previously made few inroads into the atmosphere above Antarctica , are now carrying more and more warm, moist air from lower latitudes – including Australia – deep into the continent, say scientists, and these have been blamed for the dramatic polar “heatwave” that hit Concordia. Exactly why these currents are now able to plunge so deep into the continent’s air space is not yet clear, however.

Nor has this huge temperature hike turned out to be an isolated event, scientists have discovered. For the past two years they have been inundated with rising numbers of reports of disturbing meteorological anomalies on the continent. Glaciers bordering the west Antarctic ice-sheet are losing mass to the ocean at an increasing rate, while levels of sea ice, which float on the oceans around the continent, have plunged dramatically, having remained stable for more than a century.

These events have raised fears that the Antarctic, once thought to be too cold to experience the early impacts of global warming, is now succumbing dramatically and rapidly to the swelling levels of greenhouse gases that humans continue to pump into the atmosphere.

These dangers were highlighted by a team of scientists, led by Will Hobbs of the University of Tasmania, in a paper that was published last week in the Journal of Climate . After examining recent changes in sea ice coverage in Antarctica, the group concluded there had been an “abrupt critical transition” in the continent’s climate that could have repercussions for both local Antarctic ecosystems and the global climate system.

“The extreme lows in Antarctic sea ice have led researchers to suggest that a regime shift is under way in the Southern Ocean, and we found multiple lines of evidence that support such a shift to a new sea ice state,” said Hobbs.

The dramatic nature of this transformation was emphasised by Meredith. “Antarctic sea ice coverage actually increased slightly in the late 20th and early 21st century. However, in the middle of the last decade it fell off a cliff. It is a harbinger of the new ground with the Antarctic climate system, and that could be very troubling for the region and for the rest of the planet.”

The continent is now catching up with the Arctic, where the impacts of global warming have, until now, been the most intense experienced across the planet, added Siegert. “The Arctic is currently warming at four times the rate experienced by the rest of the planet. But the Antarctic has started to catch up, so that it is already warming twice as quickly as the planet overall.”

A key reason for the Arctic and Antarctic to be taking disproportionate hits from global warming is because the Earth’s oceans – warmed by fossil-fuel burning – are losing their sea ice at their polar extremities. The dark waters that used to lie below the ice are being exposed and solar radiation is no longer reflected back into space. Instead, it is being absorbed by the sea, further heating the oceans there.

“Essentially, it is a vicious circle of warming oceans and melting of sea ice, though the root cause is humanity and its continuing burning of fossil fuels and its production of greenhouse gases,” said Meredith. “This whole business has to be laid at our door.”

As to the consequences of this meteorological metamorphosis, these could be devastating, researchers warn. If all the ice on Antarctica were to melt, this would raise sea levels around the globe by more than 60 metres. Islands and coastal zones where much of the world’s population now have homes would be inundated.

Such an apocalypse is unlikely to occur for some time, however. Antarctica’s ice sheet covers 14m square kilometres (about 5.4m square miles), roughly the area of the United States and Mexico combined, and contains about 30m cubic kilometres (7.2m cubic miles) of ice – about 60% of the world’s fresh water. This vast covering hides a mountain range that is nearly as high as the Alps, so it will take a very long time for that to melt completely, say scientists.

Nevertheless, there is now a real danger that some significant sea level rises will occur in the next few decades as the ice sheets and glaciers of west Antarctica continue to shrink. These are being eroded at their bases by warming ocean water and could disintegrate in a few decades. If they disappear entirely, that would raise sea levels by 5m – sufficient to cause damage to coastal populations around the world. How quickly that will happen is difficult to assess. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has said that sea levels are likely to rise between 0.3m to 1.1m by the end of the century. Many experts now fear this is a dangerous underestimate. In the past, climate change deniers accused scientists of exaggerating the threat of global warming. However, the evidence that is now emerging from Antarctica and other parts of the world makes it very clear that scientists did not exaggerate. Indeed, they very probably underrated by a considerable degree the threat that now faces humanity.

“The picture is further confused in Antarctica because, historically, we have had problems getting data,” added Meredith. “We have never had the information about weather and ecosystem, compared with the data we get from the rest of the world, because the continent is so remote and so hostile. Our records are comparatively short and that means that the climate models we have created, although very capable, are based on sparse data. They cannot capture all of the physics, chemistry and biology. They can make predictions that are coherent but they cannot capture the sort of extremes that we’re now beginning to observe.”

The woes facing Antarctica are not merely of human concern, however. “We are already seeing serious ecological impacts that threaten to spread through the food chain,” said Prof Kate Hendry, a chemical oceanographer based at the British Antarctic Survey.

A critical example is provided by the algae which grow under and around sea ice in west Antarctica. This is starting to disappear, with very serious implications, added Hendry. Algae is eaten by krill, the tiny marine crustaceans that are one of the most abundant animals on Earth and which provide food for predators that include fish, penguins, seals and whales. “If krill starts to disappear in the wake of algae, then all sorts of disruption to the food chain will occur,” said Hendry.

The threat posed by the disappearance of krill goes deeper, however. They play a key role in limiting global warming. Algae absorb carbon dioxide. Krill then eat them and excrete it, the faeces sinking to the seabed and staying there. Decreased levels of algae and krill would then mean less carbon from the atmosphere would be deposited on the ocean floor and would instead remain near the sea surface, where it would return to the atmosphere.

“They act like a conveyor belt that takes carbon out of the atmosphere and carries it down to the deep ocean floor where it can be locked away. So if we start messing with that system, there could be all sorts of other knock-on effects for our attempts to cope with the impact of global warming,” added Hendry. “It is a scary scenario. Nevertheless that, unfortunately, is what we are now facing.”

Another victim of the sudden, catastrophic warming that has gripped the continent is its most famous resident: the emperor penguin. Last year the species, which is found only in Antarctica, suffered a catastrophic breeding failure because the platforms of sea ice on which they are born started to break up long before the young penguins could grow waterproof feathers.

“We have never seen emperor penguins fail to breed, at this scale, in a single season,” said Peter Fretwell, of the British Antarctic Survey. “The loss of sea ice in this region during the Antarctic summer made it very unlikely that displaced chicks would survive.”

Researchers say that the discovery of the loss of emperor penguins suggests that more than 90% of colonies will be wiped out by the end of the century, if global warming trends continue at their current disastrous rate. “The chicks cannot live on sea ice until they have fledged,” said Meredith. “After that, they can look after themselves. But the sea ice is breaking up before they reach that stage and mass drowning events are now happening. Colonies of penguins are being wiped out. And that’s a tragedy. This is an iconic species, one that is emblematic of Antarctica and the new vulnerability of its ecosystems.”

The crisis facing the continent has widespread implications. More than 40 nations are signatories of the Antarctic Treaty’s environmental protocol, which is supposed to shield it from a host of different threats, with habitat degradation being one of the most important. The fact that the continent is now undergoing alarming shifts in its ice covering, eco-systems and climate is a clear sign that this protection is no longer being provided.

“The cause of this ecological and meteorological change lies outside the continent,” added Siegert. “It is being caused because the rest of the world is continuing to emit vast amounts carbon dioxide.

“Nevertheless, there is a good case for arguing that if countries are knowingly polluting the atmosphere with greenhouse gases, and Antarctica is being affected as a consequence, then the treaty protocol is being breached by its signatories and their behaviour could be challenged on legal and political grounds. It should certainly make for some challenging meetings at the UN in the coming years.”

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It’s a Wolfpack World

The Wolfpack may call North Carolina home, but our impact spans the globe. Explore the research, programs and initiatives advancing our mission on all seven continents.

As the largest university in North Carolina with a land-grant mission to open the doors of education for our home state, we believe in sharing our research and scholarship to serve a greater good. But our reach doesn’t end at North Carolina’s borders; our students, faculty and staff spark innovation and activity all over the world.

From undergraduates studying abroad to seasoned scholars shaping cutting-edge research in the world’s most remote places, our Wolfpack is extending our unique brand of excellence to every continent on Earth.

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Africa: Real Rhinoscopies

After two years of preparing to conduct anatomical research on rhinoceros sinuses at the University of Pretoria on the African continent, College of Veterinary Medicine researchers Mat Gerard and Anthony Blikslager only forgot one thing: scrubs.

Since that first trip in 2016, Blikslager, associate dean and director of Veterinary Medical Services, and Gerard, a veterinary anatomy expert and professor, have made three additional trips to South Africa, with the goal to better understand rhino sinuses and possible treatments after horn poaching or other trauma. South Africa is an ideal place to conduct this research as it is home to roughly 15,000 critically endangered and near-threatened rhinos, and a key battleground between poachers and environmentalists.

The two researchers’ international collaboration with longtime colleague Johan Marais, CEO of the Saving the Survivors conservation group, has produced a comprehensive mapping of a commonly affected region of the paranasal sinuses in rhinos. This mapping includes two anatomical features — the nasoconchal sinus and conchonasal opening — that Gerard and Blikslager named.

“One of the really remarkable things for us was looking at the anatomy, going to the anatomy textbooks to describe what we were seeing and not seeing it in the book,” said Gerard. “So, literally coming up with the appropriate anatomical term for this sinus space in the front face of the rhino that’s basically below both the rhino horns.”

Their discoveries could yield endless practical treatment options. In North America, the pair often provide zoo and wildlife medicine consultations and, in 2018, successfully helped the Brookfield Zoo in Chicago, Illinois, to carefully remove a mass in a black rhino’s airway. After two surgical interventions, the rhinoceros is still alive today.

Before studying rhinos, the pair were primarily equine researchers and veterinarians. Shifting their focus to the largest odd-toed ungulates was not a far leap on the evolutionary tree. Both animals sit in the Perissodactyls order and share a few characteristics, like their odd number of toes or hooves.

“We could take our equine knowledge and experience and literally transpose it across to the head of the rhino, and recognize all the similarities to the anatomy and very specific differences that were quite obvious when we were able to dissect the specimens,” said Gerard. “The differences are really quite interesting to us.”

Antarctica: Penguins and People

An expedition coordinated by the Ecuadorian Antarctic Institute in 2019 brought nearly 15 researchers from across the globe to one of the southernmost locations on Earth, inhabited by fewer than 5,000 people. Yu-Fai Leung, a professor and director of graduate programs at NC State’s College of Natural Resources , hoped to establish a better understanding of the competing needs between tourism and conservation for one of the world’s newest last-chance tourist destinations.

The journey to Greenwich Island in the Antarctic Peninsula was a logistical challenge several countries collaborated to solve. “This is a collaboration at all levels,” said Leung. “In Antarctica, you really need people, and help and support from everyone.”

Mounting a successful research expedition of this magnitude required an overnight stay on a Uruguayan station, lunch at a Chilean station, a charter flight, a helicopter lift and additional coordination once on the continent to reach Barrientos Island.

Leung spent most of his time in the region studying people — tourists in particular — and penguins. He and his team evaluated the response of chinstrap and gentoo penguins to differing levels of simulated tourist activity in various proximities. This was a crucial examination of one of the region’s strict tourist guidelines, imposed by the self-regulated group, the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators: Anyone visiting the continent must maintain a minimum distance of 15 feet from nesting penguins.

The tourist season overlaps with the breeding season, making these guidelines necessary to ensure adult penguins do not become anxious or defensive in their nesting sites. Leung notes that with tourism on the rise on Barrientos Island since 2005, the penguins may already have adapted to visitors.

After speaking extensively with tourists during his research, Leung identified a few causes for the large numbers of visitors — climate change being one of them.

“Some people think if they don’t go, they won’t see the same thing again in the future,” said Leung. “That’s also happening in our own National Parks in the U.S., like Glacier National Park.”

Many tourist destinations — like Iceland, Greenland and Venice — are seeing an influx of visitors for which the regions are unprepared. The desire to see these things before they disappear is normal; however, these changes in travel behavior are another factor impacting the environment in places that could look very different in 10 years. Leung and others studying tourism management are working to better understand how we can balance conservation and tourism.

“There are a lot of research questions about Antarctica that perhaps can be addressed by NC State and its students,” said Leung. “There are ways to get involved through grants or collaborations with other countries. There is not just one way to do it.”

Asia: Empowering Female Environmentalists

Uzma Miraj arrived at NC State in August 2023 — as one of three students from all-female universities in Pakistan — to complete the one-year Climate Change and Society (CCS) master’s program. The students came as part of a wider partnership between NC State’s Department of Marine, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences (MEAS) and four universities in Pakistan.

“I thought I could serve my community by going into the environmental science field,” said Miraj. “I’m from a small village called Passu. It’s in a mountainous region of Pakistan, where there are glaciers and many other natural resources. There are a lot of glacial lake outburst floods, which can destroy entire villages. Landslides are also very common in my region.

“By coming to NC State, I can learn about mitigation policies, which I can apply in my country. I can also use my knowledge in my country to educate people about climate change.”

MEAS faculty came up with the idea for a partnership with Pakistani universities centered around climate change training when they learned about a Department of State grant titled, “Developing the Next Generation of Female Environmentalists.” With North Carolina and Pakistan having similar mountains-to-coastline geographies and facing similar climate threats — including rising sea levels and flooding — the collaboration made sense. The partnership also presents a tool to help even out Pakistan’s disparity in women’s participation in environmental policy.

The partnership has helped Miraj and two other students from Pakistan advance in their careers as environmentalists, and it has brought a new perspective to the CCS program.

“Faculty have expressed how nice it’s been to have them in class,” said Jay Levine, an MEAS professor and academic advisor to the students from Pakistan. “They bring a different cultural perspective that they add to discussions. In many cases, they’re experiencing some of the impacts of climate change that we don’t necessarily see here.”

Climate change is going to take collective, global efforts…This partnership reflects the best of that.

The partnership with the four universities in Pakistan consists of many other initiatives, including curriculum development, a consortium and a webinar series. Robert Mera, associate program coordinator and instructor in CCS, collaborates with faculty in Pakistan to host online simulations on international climate negotiations. These simulations give students a tangible taste of how such negotiations work in real life, such as United Nations Conference of the Parties meetings.

“The more we work on these things, and the more there are negotiations between groups, the better the outcome as far as the rising temperature of the planet,” said Mera.

Ultimately, the goal of the partnership is to foster an exchange of knowledge and ideas to more effectively fight climate change.

“Climate change is going to take collective, global efforts,” said Levine. “It has to engage people in different cultures and countries. This partnership reflects the best of that.”

“This project could lay out a great foundation for more collaboration and training in the future, so it’s a great vehicle for us,” added Paul Liu, an MEAS professor and coordinator for the grant.

Australia: Research From Down Under

The Australian Merino is a breed of sheep raised by humans to produce one of the world’s finest wools — a breathable, moisture-regulating fabric that’s often used in clothing for athletes, emergency personnel and others who operate in extreme environments. The benefits of Australian Merino wool have earned it a place in products the world over. The cutting-edge research to better understand these benefits is taking place right here at NC State.

Emiel DenHartog, professor and interim department head in Textiles, Engineering, Chemistry and Science, leads these efforts with the Textile Protection and Comfort Center at the Wilson College of Textiles. For several years, DenHartog and his graduate assistants have managed projects sponsored by Australian Wool Innovation Limited — a research and advocacy organization supporting Australia’s woolgrowers — to measure how wool interacts with the human body and compare its performance against fabrics like cotton and polyester.

For their most recent project, DenHartog and his current graduate assistant looked beyond steady-state testing methods to create laboratory conditions that could mirror the dynamic environments human beings move through in their everyday lives.

Working in a climate-controlled chamber, they attached sensors to a sweating thermal manikin — a human model that releases heated water to simulate the transfer of heat and moisture from a perspiring body — to compare how different fabric types retain moisture and heat when worn on a human form. They then drew similar measurements from human volunteers who exercised under changing thermal conditions controlled by the researchers.

Their findings suggested that, compared to cotton or polyester, wool acts as a stronger buffer against unwanted heat loss after exercise. Wool, DenHartog said, mitigates the so-called “after-chill” effect that can hinder athletes after a workout, when a drastic drop in body temperature can make them uncomfortably cold and raise their risk of injury.

“This research helps us understand how textiles behave in different environments and it helps our students learn by experimenting with these processes,” said DenHartog. “But it also strengthens NC State’s partnerships with industry and with other stakeholders. And generating this knowledge not only helps the Australian wool industry, it helps user groups here in our country select and prepare their materials for challenging environments.”

Europe: Fashion in Florence

Each semester, hundreds of NC State students set their sights on Study Abroad . Committing to a semester overseas has never been easier, with countless degree programs and colleges offering unique global experiences through partner universities.

Bella Reeves, a third-year fashion and textile design (FTD) student in the Wilson College of Textiles , is only halfway through her semester in Florence, Italy, and is already recommending the experience to any student considering it.

“Just do it,” said Reeves. “Even if you don’t know anyone, it’s definitely worth it.”

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Reeves began considering a semester abroad at the start of her degree program when seasoned students continued to boast about the experience at the Lorenzo de’ Medici Institute. Attending the Institute — and exploring various European cities — for more than 13 weeks has given Reeves a new perspective on fashion.

In her sustainable and experimental fashion design class, the use of fabrics is banned. The limitation has pushed Reeves to masterfully find alternative fashion materials, like recycled plastic or aluminum, for her projects. Other courses she’s taking range from interior design to the anthropology of fashion.

Reeves is basking in fashion, experimenting in Italy and flexing her creativity to ensure that when she’s back at NC State for her senior year, her capstone fashion collection can showcase her growth as a student and designer. After years of conducting research, countless studio hours and learning about branding and marketing, every FTD student must complete the capstone course prior to graduation.

“That’s going to be a big project,” said Reeves. “I’m very excited to see what I’m capable of and what kind of collection I end up coming up with.”

Just do it. Even if you don’t know anyone, it’s definitely worth it.

From the foundational first-year experience through the capstone course, the program’s curriculum is designed to transition graduates into the industry seamlessly. Reeves’ focus on fashion throughout her program has shown her exactly where she’d like to take her career after graduating — deep in the fashion industry, but on the public relations side. Her ability to deliver a final product from start to finish coupled with her marketing knowledge are just the skills she needs to navigate even the toughest situations.

“I’m trying to take what I learned here and really soak up all the last moments,” said Reeves. “It’s really scary, but I will be graduating and going into the real world. I’m just going to try and enjoy it all.”

North America: Extension in Action

NC State Extension is a driver for prosperity across North Carolina — turning science into solutions for people in every county and for the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. The establishment of Extension in 1914 fueled NC State’s land-grant mission far beyond the typical call of a university and developed successful statewide partnerships with N.C. A&T State University, local, state and federal government offices.

A core focus area of the initiative is 4-H youth development — a program designed to empower young people with the life skills needed to be successful citizens and eventually lead our state. Three 4-H camps located in various parts of the state have become a summer staple for thousands of children. Young campers often come back years later as counselors, ready to guide the next generation.

“It speaks volumes that we often have campers, 4-H kids or kids who visited on field trips then showing up to work at camp,” says Stacy Burns, director of the Betsy-Jeff Penn 4-H Camp. “It is a beautiful thing to see and to know that they have found something truly formative for their experience and that they want to give to somebody else.”

Camp Millstone, Betsy-Jeff Penn and the Eastern 4-H Center don’t just create lifelong learners through summer camps — all three sites connect North Carolina families with year-round programming like field trips, conferences, events and workshops. In 2023, more than 130,000 children got hands-on with their learning and participated in school enrichment programs like Mooving Milk From the Farm to the Fridge and Energy Transformations.

“One of the things that I love about North Carolina 4-H is the diversity of programs — camp is one small piece of that,” says Angela Brisson, extension assistant for our North Carolina 4-H camps. “For a lot of rural communities, 4-H may serve as the only youth program that’s available for a lot of kids for a nominal fee. We are covering the cost of our programs as much as possible and trying to keep our camp fees low so that we’re open and available for all children across 4-H.”

Camp has this magical appeal, or special ability, to bring all different types of people together.

At the heart of 4-H and the camp experience is play. Staff and campers are given the autonomy to discover and explore unique interests. The camp directors often reinforce the importance of cultivating curiosity and having the time to do so.

“Camp has this magical appeal, or special ability, to bring all different types of people together,” says Burns. “We all share the same love for the same thing, which makes us all love each other a little more without even knowing each other, really.”

South America: Sustainability in Practice

Kelli Johnson earned her bachelor’s degree in marketing from North Carolina Central University, but her desire to strengthen her understanding of marketing analytics drew her to the Poole College of Management’s Master of Management, Marketing Analytics (MMA) concentration. The online program offers optional courses that take students outside the U.S. , and Johnson jumped at these opportunities to study abroad — first in Germany, and later in Brazil as part of the Sustainable Business in Emerging Markets course.

During her 10-day trip to Brazil, Johnson and her classmates visited B Corporations — companies certified for their high performance on social and environmental metrics — to gain insight into the sustainability challenges businesses in emerging markets must face.

They also had the opportunity to see firsthand how one nonprofit organization is lighting up communities — sustainably. They visited Litro de Luz Brasil, where they learned how the company constructs its signature low-cost, solar-powered lamps, which are deployed to communities throughout Brazil that lack access to affordable lighting. The students even got the chance to build one of these lamps themselves.

“I didn’t know what a B Corporation was before this course,” said Johnson. “Not only did I get to learn all about these companies and their focus on sustainability, I also got the chance to give back by contributing to this larger, real-world project.”

Johnson also took full advantage of her time abroad to soak up the culture and natural splendor of Brazil. She and her classmates hiked to breathtaking clifftop vistas, watched a football match between Argentine and Brazilian clubs, sampled Brazilian cuisine, viewed the world-famous Christ the Redeemer statue and visited with residents of marginalized neighborhoods in Rio de Janeiro to learn about their unique social and environmental challenges.

The experience gave Johnson a deeper understanding of the problems that real businesses must navigate to create sustainable solutions for their stakeholders. As she prepares to complete the MMA program this May, she appreciates that the knowledge she’s gained is helping her bring a more analytical mindset to her role as a marketing specialist with Toshiba — and may even someday empower her to launch her own successful business.

“I encourage people to travel and to gain different perspectives, because it opens your eyes to how other people approach their problems,” said Johnson. “Developing a global perspective while you’re a student can be incredibly valuable, no matter what you end up doing.”

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Antarctica holds a treasure trove of meteorites. Why are they disappearing?

Warmer temperatures threaten relics of the solar system in Antarctica, a new study shows.

Nearly 50,000 meteorites have been found in Antarctica and hundreds of thousands more could be recoverable. Each one tells a story of the solar system’s evolution—the first lunar rock found on the icy continent showed that material from celestial objects larger than asteroids could end up on Earth.

Finding them isn’t easy, though, and requires teams to visit remote areas with no guarantee that any will be visible. Currently, scientists find around 1,000 meteorites in Antarctica each year. But a new study published in Nature Climate Change   estimates that about 5,000 are buried out of sight every year due to warming temperatures.

To estimate this change, scientists developed a model that identifies where meteorites might surface. They based those chances on factors such as snow cover, surface temperatures, how fast the ice flows, and the steepness of the terrain. Then, they ran simulations under different warming scenarios and found that meteorites sink out of sight below the ice as temperatures rise.

“This is a bit of an unexpected impact of climate change,” says co-lead author Harry Zekollari, a glaciologist at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel. “These places are below freezing, yet we are still profoundly affecting a very important archive of the solar system.”

The challenging hunt for meteorites

The majority of Antarctic meteorites have been recovered near the base of mountains or outcrops where ice, which normally flows to lower elevations, is forced upwards. There, strong winds brush away snow, exposing ice that’s so old it appears as a bright, vivid blue. Instead of melting, some of the ice also changes directly to water vapor, helping to expose meteorites that otherwise would remain buried.

Meteorites at the surface can quickly disappear, though. When temperatures are well below freezing, the rocks can absorb enough of the sun’s heat to melt the ice, causing them to sink.

Then, subsequent refreezing renders the meteorites stranded in their melt-pockets, tucked out of sight.

“It’s very difficult to develop methods to find these meteorites,” says co-lead author Veronica Tollenaar, a glaciologist at the Université libre de Bruxelles. “That’s why we speak of meteorites being unrecoverable.”

Based on the expected warming under current policies , the team’s computer simulations showed that about one-third of visible meteorites will sink under the ice before the end of this century. This translates to a total loss of between 80,000 and 250,000 meteorites.

Losing the history of the solar system

The list of Antarctic meteorites also includes samples from Mars: The most famous, ALH 84001 contains minerals that support evidence that the Red Planet was warm and had water on its surface billions of years ago.

The ice sheet’s meteorites also contain materials that were once “free-floating bits of dust in the early solar system,” says Sara Russell, a meteorite expert at the Natural History Museum in London.

These rocks often contain minerals that have been altered by water that melted from ice they once contained in space. By studying these altered rocks, researchers can study how asteroids colliding with Earth may have supplied the water molecules that formed our planet’s oceans billions of years ago.

Meteorites also provide information about other processes that may have taken place early on; for example, whether Jupiter’s immense gravity prevented materials from different regions of the solar system from mixing together.

Antarctic meteorites are also the least weathered space rocks on Earth. The cold, dry environment helps preserve them. As a result, scientists are confident that their materials represent conditions that existed in the solar system when they formed.

The samples also include unique rocks that haven’t been found elsewhere, says Russell.

These could be from new types of asteroids or pieces from familiar kinds that haven’t made it to Earth before, showing how diverse the population of such celestial objects are.  

The race to find Antarctic meteorites

Finding more meteorites before they disappear is not an easy endeavour, though, and ultimately requires “getting some boots on the ice to go looking for them,” says Ralph Harvey, a planetary scientist at Case Western Reserve University.

Harvey adds that “the type of work the researchers of the new study are doing is perfect for extending the limits of where meteorites might be found and showing how these places may be changing.”

Zekollari says that certain areas where the study predicts meteorites will disappear more quickly should be prioritized.

“We don’t have a lot of time,” adds Tollenaar. “We need to go with more people to more places to recover the relics.”

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Antarctic sea ice melts to all-time record low for winter. Here's why that's concerning.

Antarctic sea ice recently reached an all-time record wintertime low, scientists from the National Snow and Ice Data Center announced.

The mark was set "by a wide margin," the center said in a release, adding that the amount of ice was "far outside anything observed in the 45-year modern satellite record that began in 1979."

The amount of "missing" sea ice was some 386,000 square miles below the previous record low in 2022 – more than the size of Egypt.

“The drop in Antarctic sea ice this year has been really dramatic,” said Omar Baddour, chief of climate monitoring at the World Meteorological Organization . "What happens in Antarctica and the Arctic affects the entire globe,” he said.

What is sea ice? Why is it important?

Sea ice is frozen ocean water that melts each summer, then refreezes each winter. Antarctic sea ice is typically at its smallest in late February or early March, toward the end of summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It's at its largest in September as winter comes to an end.

At the top of the world, the Arctic's sea ice schedule is the opposite: largest in February/March, and smallest in September.

In the Arctic, sea ice fills a central role in the lives and customs of native Arctic people, the data center said, as indigenous people use it for hunting and traveling. Sea ice in the Arctic also affects wildlife such as polar bears, seals and walruses.

In Antarctica, it's penguins that rely on sea ice. Due to the dramatic loss of sea ice there, several colonies of emperor penguins face "quasi-extinction" in the decades to come, a  study released in August  reported.

In addition, sea ice also protects coastal areas from erosion by damping ocean waves. In areas with less sea ice, for example, storms on the Arctic Ocean can generate much larger waves, damaging shorelines and Arctic communities.

What happens in Antarctica doesn't stay in Antarctica

Sea ice also helps regulate the planet’s temperature by influencing the circulation of the planet's atmosphere and oceans.

“The 2023 Antarctic sea-ice deficit has direct impacts on the climate and ecosystems, both nearby as well as far field, including at lower latitudes, which are home to the majority of human population and their economic interests,” said Petra Heil of the Australia Antarctic Division and part of the World Meteorological Organization’s Global Cryosphere Watch.

Antarctica’s huge glacial ice expanse and the surrounding sea ice cover are critical to regulating the climate, because it reflects the sun’s energy back to the atmosphere and space. In contrast, the dark ocean surface absorbs most of the sun’s incoming energy.

So, less sea ice contributes to increasing temperatures – thus accelerating a vicious cycle.

NOAA's National Ocean Service said that changes in the amount of sea ice can disrupt normal ocean circulation, thereby leading to changes in global climate "Even a small increase in temperature can lead to greater warming over time, making the polar regions the most sensitive areas to climate change on Earth," the ocean service reports.

Why was Antarctic sea ice so small this year?

"It is still early to say all of the factors that might be involved, but warmer ocean waters reaching the Antarctic were a key factor in slowing the ice growth through the Antarctic winter and capping the maximum at the record low level," Walt Meier, a senior research scientist at the data center, told USA TODAY.

The Antarctic ocean warmth is a part of the overall globally warm oceans, he said, but it isn’t clear how much of the ocean heat that impacted the Antarctic was due to the extreme warm waters in other parts of the globe.

Overall, "there is growing evidence that the Antarctic sea ice system has entered a new regime, featuring a much stronger influence of warm ocean waters, limiting ice growth," the NSIDC said.

There is some concern that this may be the beginning of a long-term trend of decline for Antarctic sea ice, the data center said, since oceans are warming globally, and warm water mixing in the Southern Ocean polar layer could continue.