vietnam tourism case study

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Article Contents

Introduction, literature review, research sites and research methodology, discussion and conclusion, acknowledgements, author biographies, tourism, social networks, and community development: a case study of a coastal vietnamese village.

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Thu Dinh, Edo Andriesse, Jamie Gillen, Tourism, social networks, and community development: a case study of a coastal Vietnamese village, Community Development Journal , 2023;, bsad011, https://doi.org/10.1093/cdj/bsad011

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This article examines how tourism becomes integrated into rural communities and how an isolated Vietnamese community explores and creates employment opportunities through social networks. The empirical investigation is based on a case study of local involvement in tourism employment in Viet Hai, a remote coastal commune. The results of forty in-depth, semi-structured interviews reveal that the involvement of locals in tourism employment is closely associated with the density of individual social networks. Particularly, villagers with dense networks with external tourism operators and stronger kinship relations are more likely to have better access and resources to participate in tourism employment. Our empirical findings also demonstrate that the popularity of social media in remote areas could bring more opportunities to establish and strengthen external relationships and generate more resources for tourism development. Interviews with local people also unveil that tourism can intensify the income gaps among villagers, causing increasing intra-village disparities in living standards. Based on these results, local governments should be more active in connecting local villagers and tour operators. Future research and policy work in tourism and community development would benefit from a more explicit focus on the relationships between social networks and new forms of inequality, kinship ties, agritourism, and more sustainable trajectories of local development.

Rural transformation, including diversification of local economic activities, is a significant social driver in Vietnam and many other developing countries. Since rice growing is perceived as hard work, with high costs and poor returns, many rural and peri-urban people gradually shift to non-farm work ( Nguyen et al., 2020 ; Nguyen and Kim, 2020 ). Tourism is considered as a desired addition to community economies because it contributes to local development in the form of homestays and farm tours and strengthens socio-cultural development in many rural and isolated areas ( Rogerson, 2012 ; Yanes et al., 2019 ). In Vietnam, the government has focused particularly on tourism since the establishment of the 2005 Tourism Law.

Though tourism is of critical importance to rural groups, little is known as to how tourism becomes integrated into these communities and how isolated communities explore and create employment opportunities in this sector. While a rich body of research examines community participation in tourism decision-making, few scholars have analysed local involvement in tourism employment ( Ladkin, 2011 ). In addition, the role of network-based social capital in community tourism development should be given more attention ( Casanueva et al., 2016 ).

Viet Hai, the case study of this paper, is a poor, isolated commune near Ha Long Bay. 1 The commune is well known for its nature-based, adventure, and cultural tourism. Vietnamese and foreign visitors come to the village as either independent tourists or through package tours. According to the local interviewees, tourism has been developing for more than ten years, yet the community is still in an early stage of structural economic transformation and faces many obstacles.

This article aims to answer two questions:

(i) How do social networks explain local involvement in tourism employment in Viet Hai?

(ii) To what extent does tourism contribute to community development?

This research deployed the notion of ‘ community development ’ by combining the concept of ‘community’ ( Beeton, 2006 ) and ‘development’ ( Jamal and Dredge, 2014 ). ‘ Community development ’, thus, refers to the process of change at the village level involving economic growth, socio-cultural well-being, and environmental conservation. We also define ‘ social network ’ as a group of nodes that are connected by a variety of social interactions in which nodes can be individuals or organizations while social interactions could be friendship and kinship ( Gulati, 1998 ). Kinship relations represent affective, meaningful, connective bonds developed among and beyond families ( Luong, 1989 ; Nguyen, 2014 ). Often ignored in tourism labour studies, kinship relations are an important backbone to tourism production in Vietnam, which often relies upon extended family networks to fund start-up costs; provide inexpensive labour, storage, and even destinations (such as homestays, discussed later); and help shape business strategy ( Gillen, 2010 ).

The next section reviews the literature on the linkages between tourism and community development, local involvement in tourism employment, and social networks. This is followed by an introduction of the research site, methodology, and a section presenting the main findings. The last section provides the discussion and conclusions.

Linkages between tourism and community development

The relationship between tourism and local community development is mutually constitutive. Tovar and Lockwood (2008) summarized the social impacts of tourism reported in the academic literature in four primary dimensions, specifically the social environment, economy, opportunities, and environment. Shukla and Ansari (2013) pointed out the important role of tourism in generating employment directly, such as hotels, restaurants, and interpreters, and indirectly in other sectors, such as supplementary food activities and building construction. Nevertheless, unchecked tourism growth can cause negative effects on indigenous people, raising social inequity and exacerbating environmental problems ( Northcote and Macbeth, 2005 ).

While the participation of the community in tourism is commonly examined through the decision-making process, local people can also involve in tourism through employment ( Zhao and Ritchie, 2007 ). The significant contribution of tourism to job creation can be found in tourism studies and development studies ( Hoang et al., 2020 ). Vanhove (1981) argued that the impact of tourism on employment should consist of both primary and secondary effects, equivalent to direct, indirect, and induced employment. This article aims to strengthen the relationship between tourism and employment dynamics by investigating how local people participate in tourism and observing the factors driving this participation.

Network-based theory of social capital

Lin (2001) defines social capital as ‘ resources embedded in one’s social networks, resources that can be accessed or mobilised through ties in networks ’. Therefore, individual and/or organizational networks are crucial and exogenous to social capital. Timur and Getz (2008) point out that ‘nodes’ or ‘actors’, ‘links’, and ‘networks’ are the three main concepts of social networks. While ‘nodes’ or ‘actors’ imply entities, individuals, or organizations, ‘links’ could be communications, friendships, or resource exchanges, and the connection between different actors and links creates ‘networks’. Networks have two characteristics, density and centrality. The former refers to the quantity of connections between different nodes, while the latter stresses power concentration. Social networks may consist of a person’s family, relatives, friends, and neighbours.

Over the last three decades, social network concept has been applied widely in both theory and practice, focusing on the structures and properties of relationships ( Milroy and Llamas, 2013 , p. 409). According to Mitchell (1986) , one of the main ideas behind network analysis is that people create personal communities that help them solve the problems they face every day. Similarly, Ibarra (1993) emphasizes that the structure of social relationships facilitates or constrains access to valued resources. Informal networks exchange task advice, strategic information, social identity (norms), and social support ( Podolny and Baron, 1997 , p. 674).

There is a continuing debate among social scientists over the impacts of networks’ strength and density on information distribution. Dense and strong networks can benefit information distribution, increasing trust between actors ( Galaskiewicz and Zaheer, 1999 ; Ahuja, 2000 ). In contrast, others like Burt (2000) argue that sparse networks are more favourable for distributing information because it can avoid overlapping information created by different actors.

Social networks can be examined at a macro-scale (between national governments), at meso-level (between firms), or at micro-level (between individual actors) ( Kadushin, 2004 ). In tourism studies, the related notion of social networks is primarily examined at the micro-scale of behaviour, analysing the interaction between hosts and guests ( Stokowski, 1992 ). Tourists in the developing worlds are usually perceived to come from more developed communities and, therefore, have different impacts on society ( Nash and Smith, 1991 ; Hwang and Stewart (2017) investigated how different types of interpersonal relationships are connected to a rural community’s collective action. Accordingly, residents are more likely to get involved in collective tourism development if they have more connections with other actors and especially if they have closer relationships with community leaders of tourism development ( Lin, 2001 ; Hwang and Stewart, 2017 ). Zhao et al. (2011) use social networks to explain why some local entrepreneurs can start a tourism business while it is impossible for others in the same place to do so even though they are all interested in the tourism industry. The relationship between social networks and local involvement in tourism employment seems to be rarely examined in previous research. Recent studies have examined the effects of social networks on individuals, focusing on topics such as network structure and function ( Newman, 2003 ; Borgatti et al., 2009 ; Baird and Gray, 2014 ). However, there is inadequate attention on how the evolution of social networks is associated with outside factors and the impacts of such evolution on local development ( Baird and Gray, 2014 ). Therefore, this article aims to fill these gaps by delving into the role of social networks in determining local engagement in tourism employment ( Figure 1 ).

Social networks and employment in tourism; source: first author.

Research sites

Viet Hai commune (also known colloquially as Viet Hai village) is located on the east coast of Cat Hai district, a sub-administrative unit of Hai Phong city. 2 The commune is also situated in the heart of Cat Ba National Park. Viet Hai has islands of various sizes distributed over the sea, creating many beautiful bays for tourism, transportation, and aquaculture. In 2015, Viet Hai covered a total of 6839.07 ha and is administratively divided into group 1 (or the upper group) and group 2 (or the lower group) 3 ( Figures 2 and 3 ).

Administrative map of Cat Hai district; source: first author.

Map of Viet Hai; source: first author.

Statistics from the local government show that there were ninety-five registered households and 285 residents in the commune in 2019. However, since some local villagers had left their houses temporarily to work, study, or stay with their relatives, it was estimated that there were approximately seventy-seven households regularly living in Viet Hai. All the respondents from our study agreed that the quality of life of Viet Hai villagers has changed significantly over the years because of considerable financial support from the Vietnamese government, particularly in infrastructure growth and funding to help off-farm livelihood opportunities among local people. While the village was a very poor community in the past, in 2019, according to Viet Hai People’s Committee, only two households were identified as poor, showing a significant achievement in poverty reduction in the village.

Interviews with local people for our research reveal that agriculture and forestry are traditional economic activities in the region. Rice cultivation, raising livestock, fishing, beekeeping, and honey collection are dominant work in Viet Hai. However, there has been a downward trend in agriculture recently, particularly in farming and forestry, due to low productivity and national restrictions on hunting and cutting wood. Instead, there is a rising interest in developing the aquaculture and tourism industries.

Both tourists and local people recognize that the natural beauty and the relatively old-fashioned features of an isolated commune with few industrial activities, substantial pastoral beauty, and respite from busy city life are advantages for tourism development in Viet Hai. Furthermore, tourism in Viet Hai has a close connection with Ha Long Bay, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a popular tourist attraction in neighbouring Quang Ninh Province. The main tourism activities in Viet Hai are walking, climbing, cycling, and village touring. Villagers have reported that tourism has been developing for approximately twenty years but has only achieved rapid growth in the last three to four years since many tourism companies and tour operators have included Viet Hai in their tour. Table 1 summarises specific information on the development of tourism in Viet Hai in recent years and Figure 4 provides some illustrations.

Tourism development in Viet Hai from 2015 to 2020

Source: Viet Hai People’s Committee.

‘–’ denotes missing data.

Tourism in Viet Hai; source: taken by the first author.

Research methods

The analysis reported in the present research draws on various qualitative research methods, including site visits; semi-structured, in-depth interviews; participant observation; and archival studies. While a large body of previous research, such as Baird and Gray (2014) and Nguyen et al. (2018) , used quantitative methods to examine social networks, in this paper, we want to take advantage of qualitative research methods. Particularly, our findings and arguments are built based on the authentic perspectives of local villagers. Also, we want to examine the coherency between the finding and its social context ( Fossey et al., 2002 ). In this way, we are also able to compare the findings from our research to the previous works about the role of social networks that deployed different research methods. Baird and Vue (2017) also utilized qualitative methods to investigate how various Hmong social networks impact the development of small-scale rubber cultivation in Laos.

The first author conducted a fifteen-day fieldwork visit to Viet Hai, from 30 December 2019 to 14 January 2020, to collect the primary data explored in this paper. During this time, the researcher interviewed forty participants: thirty-two local villagers, two local government officials, one local community leader, and five tourists. All the interviews were recorded by phone and notes were taken with the participant’s permission. The interviews varied from fifteen minutes to one hour and forty minutes. The thirty-two local interviewees were recruited through snowball or chain referral sampling, defined as ‘contacting one participant via the other’ ( Browne, 2007 ). The first author began recruiting interviewees by meeting the head of Economics Department, Viet Hai People’s Committee Viet Hai. He then helped the first author to meet the Vice Chairman of Viet Hai commune to gain his further approval.

Following the recommendations for potential interviewees from these two government officials, the author approached one female interviewee. She assisted the researcher by recommending and contacting participants from among her acquaintances who work in either tourism or non-tourism activities. Consequently, the sample size built up like a rolling snowball. The interviewees consisted of nine men and twenty-three women in total. The interviewees’ age ranged from the early thirties to the late eighties. They were asked questions about tourism development in Viet Hai, why they are (not) engaged in tourism employment, and the impacts of tourism on community development. To safeguard the interviewees’ privacy, they will be given a number. Apart from the two male local government officials of the Viet Hai People’s Committee mentioned previously, there is one female community leader. These three interviewees were asked similar questions to the thirty-two local villagers in addition to questions regarding tourism and community development policies. Five tourists were selected randomly when the researcher walked around the village. 4

The impact of social networks on local involvement in tourism employment

Different forms of tourism employment.

The World Tourism Organization and International Labour Organization (2014) divide tourism employment into direct and indirect employment based on tourists’ engagement in, or contribution to, the tourism supply side. Direct employment refers to jobs in which employees interact directly with tourists and provide tourism services, while indirect employment includes all jobs in which the workers are not in direct contact with tourists but support those who are. According to the aforementioned classification, the percentage of each type of tourism employment among the thirty-two employees interviewed is illustrated in Figure 5 .

Involvement of interviewees in tourism employment; source: fieldwork in Viet Hai from 30 December 2019 to 14 January 2020.

The data provided by the local government show that, in 2019, among 285 local residents, only forty-two villagers (14.7 percent) were directly involved in tourism, while 243 villagers (85.3 percent) fell into the indirect and non-involvement categories. 5 We can observe consistency between the results from the fieldwork ( Figure 5 ) and the data from the local government, in which the percentage of indirect and non-employment in tourism activities is higher than that of indirect employment. Direct tourism employment mainly concentrates on family-based businesses in the village, but which factors explain the involvement of local villagers in the tourism industry? The interview results reveal that, in the case of a remote community like Viet Hai, differences in external networks and kinship networks co-determine outcomes.

External networks

Due to the socioeconomic limitations, poor infrastructure, and language barriers in remote areas, external networks play an essential role in helping local villagers. For more opportunities to engage in tourism activities, interviewees reported that their households have to widen their informal and external networks by building relationships with outside tourism operators. After these relationships have been built, they can access the resources embedded within them. The resources can be financial support, information sharing, and advice. Direct tourism employment refers to the service providers of Viet Hai. These local providers contact their customers through tour operators and travel agents ( Figure 6 ).

The place of external networks in the distribution chain of the tourism system; source: adapted from Budeanu (2005) , Holloway (1998) , and the results of the interviews.

Tour operators act as intermediaries between local providers and tourists. Households usually seek to build up networks with tour operators via an introduction through their friends, relatives, or the Internet. The two quotes describe how external networks can be widened:

Our business and others in Viet Hai depend greatly on tour operators based on how many tourists that they can bring to us. We have different ways to discover tour operators. In my case, I was introduced to tour operators through my friends and friends of friends. We made deals directly with tour operators, not directly with tourists. There is rarely a case we can make a deal with tourists directly. (Interviewee 04, local tourism services provider)

A vast majority of tourists come to Viet Hai through package tours. The number of independent travellers is very small … Although financial constraints are disadvantages for many people who want to run a tourism business, you can find some ways to deal with it, for example, borrowing money from someone you know. Working in the tourism industry directly is not an issue of money. Rather, it relies heavily on the social networks (quan h ) you have with other people, not only in Viet Hai but also in Cat Ba, Hanoi, Quang Ninh, which are the centres for tourism in northern Vietnam. These wide social networks can bring you a large and constant number of tourists, otherwise, your business cannot survive. (Interview 02, local tourism services provider)

Kinship and family networks

In addition to external networks, the interviews revealed the important role of kinship networks in determining the involvement of local villagers in tourism employment. Kinship is an essential part of social capital, playing an important role in the social organization of many Asian countries. Pain and Hansen (2019) define kinship as ‘blood relationships’, which shape moral obligations for its members. In a village like Viet Hai, kinship takes on a broader definition than Pain and Hansen’s treatment; kinship usually refers to familial ties but in Vietnam can also include close friends and neighbours who, depending on the extent of the relationship, are referred to by terms like ‘older sister’, ‘younger brother’, ‘uncle’, ‘aunt’, and the like ( Luong, 1989 ). This is consequential for this study when thinking about how Vietnamese kinship networks create unique community labour networks compared to those in urban centres, which are generally more instrumental and thus less personal.

Local households and villagers who have strong kinship networks have better resources to work in tourism. The case of interviewee 02 can be used as a typical example. He and his wife are tourism service providers and have worked in the tourism industry for about ten years. Over the years, their business has benefited their children, nephew, and in-laws. They can afford a better home, food, household appliances, and a motorcycle. Now, they are all engaged in tourism employment as tourism providers and support each other.

The supporting role of kinship networks in engaging local people in tourism activities can also be seen in the connection between direct and indirect tourism workers. Interviewee 01 reported that he had borrowed 100 million VND (~US$4370) from his sister to buy a tram to take tourists around the village. His passengers are introduced to him through his brother because his brother has already made deals with tour operators to attract tourists. Thus, it seems reasonable to him to invest and become a direct tourism provider despite taking on significant debt. However, not everyone is as successful as Interviewee 01. Some interviewees face financial constraints, and some are not close to their relatives:

In this village, if you want to run your business in tourism, you must have strong kinship networks. Most people here have the same blood, but in my case, I do not have any relatives here; I feel lonely. So, I could be knocked out right away if I were to enter the tourism market. (Interviewee 15, informal, seasonal employee)

These results can be partially related to the concept of ‘guanxi’ or ‘networking’, which focuses on developing networks or ties with people and taking advantage of these connections to enhance one’s living standard. Guanxi is especially unique in Chinese society and business. It defines the ‘special personal relationship’ that a person can utilize to access more resources and opportunities for a certain purpose. Instrumentality, reciprocity, and unethical consequence are three key elements of guanxi . Three types of guanxi are family guanxi , helper guanxi , and business guanxi ( Fan, 2002 ). Many researchers have examined the impact of guanxi in tourism development. Although the findings in each study differ in terms of how guanxi affects tourism in China, they all suggest that networking is critical in processing and developing tourism, which is consistent with our findings. Furthermore, it has been identified as an obstacle to community tourism development since family and business guanxi might combine to form a ‘circle of guanxi elites’, favouring the passive and exclusive engagement of locals in community tourism ( Li et al., 2007 ). This marginalization is also pointed out in our research. What is different from network-based social capital in this study and guanxi is that while it usually entails a rule of reciprocity with a deliberate exchange of banquets and money ( Fan, 2002 ), it is not the case of social networks and community’s involvement in tourism activities in Viet Hai.

Contributions of tourism to community development

Most respondents talked about how much tourism has contributed to community development in terms of financial and non-financial offerings, showing their support for tourism development and their interest in participating in tourism activities.

Economic and non-economic contributions

According to the interview participants, rural tourism in Viet Hai is crucial for diversifying villagers’ occupations and income. Rather than requiring highly skilled labourers, tourism opens more positions for low-skilled labourers in the village. The bucolic agricultural portrait of the village has now been replaced with growth in homestays, restaurants, and retail shops. Employment has been diversified to include direct and indirect tourism workers such as bicycle providers, souvenir sellers, homestay owners, and food suppliers. These jobs are welcomed by the villagers and contribute to their sense of satisfaction with the community. Involvement in various positions in the tourism industry also helps local people generate more income sources, like the case of interviewee 01.

Since I started to work as a tram driver, earning money seems to be easier for me. In the past, my job relied on the weather. In bad weather, I could not collect bees and honey in the forest or grow vegetables, particularly if a disaster happened. In contrast, as a driver now, I can still earn money by taking tourists around the village without depending on the weather. Therefore, my income is a bit better. (Interviewee 01, tram driver)

Tourism has contributed to breaking the isolation of Viet Hai and has expanded the connections between local villagers and people from other regions. Interviewees generally expressed their satisfaction with tourism development in Viet Hai, showing their eagerness to welcome new visitors to the village.

Disparities in living standards

Despite tourism having brought about many positive changes for local people, a number of interviewees also mentioned that this growth is accompanied by increasing income disparities among the villagers. While the estimated monthly average income per capita of direct tourism employment ranges from 2500 to 6500 thousand VND (~US$109 to US$284), it is around 70,000 VND (~US$30) for indirect employment, a gap of four to nine times. Tourism is the main source of income for direct tourism employees while indirect and non-involving employees mostly earn from seafood collecting, aquaculture, and agriculture.

In Viet Hai, if you want to be a rich household, you must run your tourism business. Generally, the households directly engaged in tourism are wealthier than others like us. They have higher and more regular incomes. In contrast, the income we earn from collecting crabs and snails is irregular and unsustainable. Our household’s monthly income is approximately 5 million VND (~US$218). We have no savings and still borrow money from banks and our relatives. This television you see here, we bought on credit. (Interviewee 25, fisherwoman/catching crabs)

In addition, interviewees mentioned the irregular and low-paid work for indirect participants in tourism. Hoang et al. (2014) also observed that locals who benefit from tourism activities in Sa Pa (Vietnam) include hotels, homestays, restaurant owners, shopkeepers, and tour guides.

Despite social network theory as a long-standing concept and approach in social sciences, relatively few studies have examined the relationships between social networks and community development ( Ennis and West, 2010 ). Gilchrist (2004) points out the importance of research on the operation of such networks, and understanding the flows of power and resources within networks. In the case of tourism development in Viet Hai village, social networks are closely related to the flow of resources that can be favourable for villagers to involve in the tourism industry as employees. Such resources could be financial support, working opportunities, and incoming tourists.

In our research, social networks can also define the notion of inclusion and exclusion of tourism and community development. On the one hand, families and individuals who have wide and strong external networks with tourism operators or strong kinship networks are more likely to be directly involved in the tourism industry as homestay or restaurant owners, having a better income. On the other hand, villagers who have fewer connections with external tourism operators and weak kinship networks find it more difficult to work in the tourism industry. Their livelihood, therefore, depends on agriculture and aquaculture. As a result, the density and quality of social networks also determine the degree of inclusion or exclusion. Exclusion is an unavoidable process and this way of conceptualizing exclusion can be related to inequality ( Hall et al., 2011 ).

Tourism development is normally blamed for widening the social inequity between local people ( Teye et al., 2002 ; Northcote and Macbeth, 2005 ). However, there is insufficient knowledge on the relationships between social networks and inequality. Therefore, future research on community-based tourism would benefit from a more explicit focus on this relationship. It could lead to a better theoretical understanding of what drives inclusive tourism-related local development as well as to tools for better tailored policy options. In addition, there is also potential for future research on the impacts of social media on social ties and tourism development in remote communities. The research methods of social network studies can also be diversified by deploying not only quantitative methods to investigate the number of nodes or density of the networks but also qualitative methods to better understand the social contexts.

This article also raises a question regarding the role of agriculture in tourist areas, especially when shocks like the COVID-19 pandemic disrupt the tourism sector. After the fieldwork was completed, the first author stayed in touch with the head of the Economic Department in Viet Hai. According to him, ‘ in 2020, we can see local business in tourism is greatly devastated by COVID-19. From 8 March to 20 April, we had to follow strictly the social distancing required by the Vietnam government. We just stayed at home and could not go outside or even visit our neighbours. Local households who provide tourism services like us had no guests. We just had meals and then went to sleep during the time of social distancing ’ (May 7, 2020). Many local people in Viet Hai returned to farming and aquaculture to cope with these unprecedented shocks. Apart from providing resources for food consumption and tourism development, agriculture provides an alternative livelihood strategy for villagers, helping communities to adapt and be resilient in the face of undesired risks. However, some of Viet Hai’s villagers and rural people elsewhere in Vietnam tended to quit farming and engage in industrial labour. Therefore, we suggest that rural communities should establish and develop a close association between agriculture and tourism in the form of ‘agritourism’ ( Phillip et al., 2010 ). Furthermore, a potentially positive consequence of the pandemic could be to find a new normal; a normal that is not geared towards mass tourism, but sustainable tourism in Vietnam. Higgins-Desbiolles (2020) and Ioannides and Gyimóthy (2020) believe that the pandemic has brought about a chance to rebuild the concept of sustainable tourism. Local businesses may have more opportunities to engage in tourism activities because post-pandemic tourism companies will rely more on local suppliers than on long, global supply chains. Local communities can therefore take advantage of this time to become involved in tourism employment. In a new normal, policy makers can also integrate kinship ties in tourism policies in isolated communities. Based on our conceptual and empirical insights, kinship ties should be considered, particularly when it is likely that kinship ties imply exclusion of households who are not connected. Policies fostering solidarity and collaboration are then worthwhile to explore in order to minimize marginalization and households who are left out.

This article adds to the body of knowledge on the application of the network-based theory of social capital in tourism studies and on how kinship networks shape tourism labour in remote areas. Focusing on socio-spatial networks and the potential resources embedded within, this contribution has paid attention to the role of social networks in determining local involvement. While the dense and strong social networks could be an advantage for some groups of local people to help them find work in the tourism industry as either direct or indirect employees, sparse and weak social networks limit such opportunities for other groups. The density of such networks is closely related to information distribution, the ways in which networks are established, and generating resources.

National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2019S1A5A2A0).

This research was partially funded by a project entitled Glocal rural inequality labs in Southeast Asia: How to reduce socioeconomic and socio-political marginalisation, led by Dr Edo Andriesse.

Since Viet Hai village is the only village in Viet Hai commune, local people usually use the term ‘Viet Hai commune’, ‘Viet Hai village’, or just Viet Hai interchangeably.

Hai Phong is a major industrial city, the centre of the economy, technology, science, and trade on the northern coast of Vietnam.

The word ‘upper’ and ‘lower’ here refer to the geographical location of each group based on the flow of a river in the village. It does not imply upper and lower in terms of income or wealth.

There were only three local government officials because Viet Hai is a small village with a handful of government officials, especially those who are directly involved in overall development and tourism development policies. Five tourists were interviewed because local involvement in tourism activities and local development are the foci of this study, so local villagers form the majority of respondents.

There were no separate data for indirect tourism-related employment.

Thu Dinh is a PhD candidate at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Department of Geography. Her research interests are Southeast Asia, development studies, and environment studies.

Jamie Gillen conducts research on cultural politics and urbanization in Mainland Southeast Asia and is the Director and Senior Lecturer of the Global Studies Programme.

Edo Andriesse conducts research on rural development in Southeast Asia and teaches human geography courses.

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Craft villages and tourism development, a case study in Phu Quoc island of Vietnam

Summary Craft tourism is attracting many domestic and foreign tourists. In recent years in Vietnam, craft villages have exploited their potentials in tourism industry. For many different causes, tourism activities have yet reached expectations and their potentials for tourism development. This paper is to review their currents, tourism potentials and limitations and then formulate recommendations to the tourism development in Phu Quoc island. The data for this paper are from two sources. Secondary data were collected from the vast literature and journals. Primary data were from interviews with village owners, related authorities, tourists, tourism corporate, etc. and results serve as guidelines to develop the tourism industry and management.

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The tourism industry is widely acknowledged as the crucial influencer to the rapid and significant development of the current world and becomes one of the largest and fastest growing economic sectors in the world. Vietnam - a developing country and Phu Quoc island of Kien Giang Province in Vietnam own the great potentials and invaluable resources for tourism development. Nonetheless, Phu Quoc tourism has been also encountering difficulties and facing with several hidden drawbacks by its rapidly fast growth. The general objective of this study is to develop the strategies for tourism development towards sustainable tourism development. The triangulation research method is employed which consists of the secondary and primary data. Secondary data relies on vast sources. Primary data is the results of the surveys by questionnaires with 230 local residents, 150 businesses, and 530 tourists. Furthermore, primary data gains from the semi-structured and in-depth interviews conducted in Phu Quoc with local residents, businesses, tourists, local authorities’ officers, and especially with 12 experts. All of the surveyed data was processed with SWOT and IPA analyses. The results of the study will be useful sources for the Phu Quoc tourism development practice

Development Issues for Binh Chau-Phuoc Buu Nature Reserve, Xuyen Moc District, Ba Ria-Vung Tau Province, Viet Nam

Vern Weitzel

University of Paris 1- Pantheon Sorbonne

DAO T H I Nhu

Hanoi owns a huge variety of urban architectural heritages that have a good value in community life and serve certain functions in the city’s spatial organisation. Despite great effort from the State, preservation is still a challenging task. In the context of rapid development, especially after the Renovation policy in 1986, Hanoi has raised the need to protect not only existing single heritage values but also their dynamic surrounding spaces. These elements have been “encroached”, “occupied”, threatening “heritage messages”. Thereby, heritage issues are not only related to the value of each single building itself, but they are also an issue of urban life. Heritages are a component of the urban development context. Their influence and relation with other urban elements, including a dynamic life and diverse needs of the community, is undeniable. To complete the thesis, field surveys were conducted at heritage sites located at typical areas for city urbanisation, community interaction and urban development context. This helps to identify heritage issues such as heritage features, heritage value, mutual relationship between heritage – community – urban development, positive and negative changes of heritages, other relevant factors from community groups. Accordingly, the thesis puts forward suggestions to preserve heritages in the context of urban development, to encourage community participation and to balance the need for preservation and the constraints of city development. Developing the interaction space between heritage and community, setting up a Heritage Forum to enhance the sharing of heritage information among community groups, making policies based on market demand and the actual needs of different target groups… are among the suggested directions. Key words: urban architectural heritage, preservation, urbanisation, community, Hanoi, Vietnam

Sandra Lantz

Thiên Thanh Thanh

Phu Quoc island of Kien Giang Province in Vietnam has great potentials and invaluable resources for tourism development. Nonetheless, Phu Quoc tourism is faced with several challenges as result of rapid growth. The study examined the perception of local residents, tourism businesses and tourist about sustainable development in tourism industry. Authors used both quantitative and qualitative research approach to explore the subject. The authors used secondary and primary data to provide insights on the subject. Secondary data relies on vast sources, including Kien Giang department of tourism, statistical departments of Kien Giang and Phu Quoc, annual all-level governmental reports, state-run businesses among others. We administered questionnaires to 230 local residents, 150 businesses, and 530 tourists. Furthermore, semi-structured and in-depth interviews were conducted in Phu Quoc with local residents, businesses, tourists, local authorities’ officers, and especially with 12 experts who are stakeholders of Phu Quoc tourism as well. The results suggest that principles of sustainable tourism development have not been fully complied with, especially, social and environmental facets. The study concludes that stakeholders should be educated on sustainable tourism development

R.W. (Bill) Carter

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The Impact of Tourism on the Economy of Vietnam

Vietnam has emerged as a thriving tourist destination in recent years, a bustling country known for its breathtaking landscapes, rich cultural heritage, and warm hospitality. With each passing year, the number of visitors flocking to this Southeast Asian gem continues to rise, contributing significantly to the country’s economic prosperity. In fact, tourism has become a driving force behind Vietnam’s growth and development, fueling job creation, foreign exchange earnings, and infrastructure development. As we delve into the impact of tourism on the economy of Vietnam, it becomes evident that this industry plays a crucial role in shaping the nation’s economic landscape and supporting a multitude of sectors. From enchanting beach resorts to bustling cities and serene rural landscapes, Vietnam’s allure has captivated the hearts of travellers worldwide, propelling the country towards new horizons of economic success.

Overview of Vietnam’s Tourism Industry

A. historical background of tourism in vietnam.

Vietnam’s journey as a sought-after tourist destination can be traced back to its post-war era in the late 1980s when the country opened its doors to international visitors. Since then, Vietnam has experienced a remarkable transformation, evolving from a war-torn nation into a captivating and vibrant tourist hotspot. The government’s strategic focus on tourism development, combined with the country’s natural beauty, cultural heritage, and friendly locals, has played a pivotal role in attracting tourists from all corners of the globe.

B. Current state and growth of the tourism industry

Vietnam’s tourism industry has witnessed exponential growth in recent years, firmly establishing itself as a prominent player in the global tourism market. The number of international arrivals has soared, with record-breaking figures year after year. From pristine beaches and breathtaking mountains to bustling cities and UNESCO World Heritage sites, Vietnam offers various attractions catering to various travellers’ interests.

C. Statistics on tourist arrivals, revenue, and job creation

The statistics surrounding Vietnam’s tourism industry paint a compelling picture of its significance. According to the  Vietnam National Administration of Tourism  (VNAT), the country welcomed a record-breaking 18 million international visitors in 2019, marking a substantial increase compared to previous years. This influx of tourists has resulted in a significant boost to the economy, contributing to the overall revenue generated by the sector. Additionally, the growth of tourism has created a multitude of employment opportunities, directly and indirectly benefiting various sectors such as hospitality, transportation, retail, and local businesses.

Economic Benefits of Tourism in Vietnam

A. contribution to gdp, analysis of tourism’s direct and indirect contribution to gdp.

The tourism industry in Vietnam plays a vital role in driving economic growth and making substantial contributions to the country’s GDP. Let’s examine the specific areas where tourism has a direct and indirect impact on the economy:

Accommodation Sector

The hospitality industry, including hotels, resorts, and guesthouses, is a significant contributor to GDP. In 2019, the accommodation sector alone generated VND 211.7 trillion (approximately USD 9.2 billion), accounting for 4.1% of Vietnam’s GDP [1]. The construction and ongoing operation of accommodation facilities further stimulate economic activity, providing employment opportunities and fostering the development of related sectors.

Transportation Sector

The transportation industry is closely linked to tourism, as it facilitates the movement of tourists within the country. In 2019, the total contribution of the transportation sector to Vietnam’s GDP was VND 161.8 trillion (approximately USD 7 billion), accounting for 3.1% of GDP [1]. This includes revenue generated from domestic and international air travel, road transport, and other transportation services.

Food and Beverage Sector

Dining and culinary experiences are an integral part of the tourism experience. In 2019, the food and beverage sector contributed VND 101.8 trillion (approximately USD 4.4 billion) to Vietnam’s GDP, representing 2% of the total GDP [1]. This includes revenue from restaurants, cafes, street food vendors, and other dining establishments catering to both domestic and international tourists.

Entertainment and Recreation Sector

Tourism stimulates demand for entertainment and recreation activities. In 2019, the entertainment and recreation sector contributed VND 84.4 trillion (approximately USD 3.7 billion) to Vietnam’s GDP, accounting for 1.6% of the total GDP [1]. This includes revenue generated from attractions, cultural performances, adventure sports, and other recreational activities.

Beyond the direct contributions, tourism has a significant multiplier effect on various other sectors of the economy. For example:

• Retail Sector: Tourism stimulates demand for souvenirs, local products, and handicrafts. The retail sector benefited from VND 25.1 trillion (approximately USD 1.1 billion) in revenue generated by tourists in 2019, contributing to the overall GDP [1].
• Banking and Financial Services: Tourists require banking and financial services such as foreign currency exchange and financial transactions. These activities generated revenue for the banking and financial sector, contributing to the overall GDP.
• Cultural Heritage Preservation: Tourism contributes to the preservation and maintenance of cultural heritage sites. Investments in restoration, conservation, and cultural management activities support related industries and contribute to GDP.

Statistics on tourism’s share of GDP and its growth over the years

Tourism’s share of Vietnam’s GDP has consistently increased, reflecting the industry’s growing importance. In 2019, the direct contribution of travel and tourism to GDP was 6.6%, amounting to VND 338.2 trillion (approximately USD 14.7 billion) [2]. When considering the indirect contributions and the broader impact on the economy, tourism’s  total contribution to GDP reached 9.2% , equivalent to VND 886.6 trillion (approximately USD 38.6 billion) [2].

These figures demonstrate the substantial impact of tourism on Vietnam’s economy, from the direct revenue generated by tourism-related sectors to the indirect effects on other industries. As the tourism industry continues to grow and attract more visitors, its contribution to GDP is expected to increase, further driving economic development and prosperity in Vietnam.

B. Employment and Job Creation

Examination of tourism-related employment opportunities.

The tourism industry in Vietnam is a significant source of employment, offering diverse job opportunities for the local workforce. From hotel staff and tour guides to restaurant workers and artisans, tourism-related businesses create a wide range of jobs that cater to various skill levels and interests. This sector has the potential to absorb a significant portion of the labour force, including those in rural and remote areas, thereby reducing unemployment and improving livelihoods.

Discussion of the sectors benefiting from tourism (hospitality, transportation, retail, etc.)

Beyond direct employment in the tourism industry, various sectors benefit from the ripple effect of tourism. The hospitality sector experiences growth, necessitating the development of hotels, resorts, and accommodations to cater to the increasing demand. Similarly, transportation services, including airlines, taxi services, and tour operators, witness expansion due to the rising number of travellers. Additionally, the retail sector experiences a surge in demand for locally-made products and souvenirs, leading to economic opportunities for artisans and small businesses.

C. Foreign Exchange Earnings

Explanation of how tourism generates foreign currency for vietnam.

Tourism serves as a significant source of foreign exchange earnings for Vietnam. International visitors spend money on accommodation, dining, shopping, and various tourist activities, resulting in the inflow of foreign currencies into the country. These expenditures help generate foreign exchange reserves, contributing to the stability of Vietnam’s economy and its ability to finance imports, repay external debts, and maintain a favourable balance of payments.

Analysis of the Role of international tourists in boosting foreign exchange reserves

International tourists play a crucial role in boosting Vietnam’s foreign exchange reserves. Their spending power contributes directly to the country’s balance of payments and supports the stability of the Vietnamese currency. The continuous growth in international arrivals and their expenditure patterns reinforce Vietnam’s position as an attractive destination for global travellers, strengthening its economic standing on the international stage.

With a solid understanding of the overview of Vietnam’s tourism industry and the economic benefits it brings, we can now delve deeper into the multifaceted impact of tourism on the country’s economy. In the following sections, we will explore the specific contributions to GDP, employment generation, and foreign exchange earnings, shedding light on the remarkable influence this industry has on Vietnam’s economic landscape.

Investment and Infrastructure Development

A. overview of investment in the tourism sector.

Investment in Vietnam’s tourism sector has played a pivotal role in its development and growth. Both domestic and foreign investors have recognized the immense potential of Vietnam as a tourist destination and have made significant investments to capitalize on the opportunities it presents. These investments encompass a wide range of areas, including accommodation, transportation, attractions, and tourism-related services, contributing to the expansion and enhancement of the overall tourism infrastructure.

B. Major infrastructure projects supporting tourism (airports, hotels, transportation networks)

Vietnam has undertaken major infrastructure projects to support and accommodate the growing tourism industry. The development of modern airports, such as Noi Bai International Airport in Hanoi and Tan Son Nhat International Airport in Ho Chi Minh City, has improved international connectivity and facilitated the inflow of tourists. Additionally, the construction of hotels and resorts, ranging from boutique establishments to world-class luxury properties, has catered to the diverse needs and preferences of visitors. Furthermore, transportation networks, including highways, railways, and domestic flight routes, have been expanded and upgraded to enhance accessibility and connectivity within the country.

C. Impact on local businesses and entrepreneurial opportunities

The thriving tourism industry in Vietnam has created significant opportunities for local businesses and entrepreneurs. Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have flourished, providing a wide range of goods and services to meet the demands of tourists. Local artisans, craftsmen, and farmers have also found new markets for their products, showcasing Vietnam’s rich cultural heritage and traditional craftsmanship. The growth of tourism has spurred entrepreneurial initiatives, empowering individuals and communities to showcase their talents, preserve their cultural identities, and create sustainable livelihoods.

Rural and Community Development

A. discussion of the role of tourism in promoting rural and community development.

Tourism plays a crucial role in promoting rural and community development in Vietnam. Beyond the bustling cities, travellers are increasingly seeking authentic and immersive experiences in rural areas. This trend has opened up opportunities for rural communities to actively participate in tourism by offering homestay accommodations, traditional handicraft workshops, cultural performances, and guided tours. Tourism has helped to diversify income sources, reduce rural-urban migration, and revitalize local economies.

B. Case studies highlighting successful community-based tourism initiatives

Several successful community-based tourism initiatives have emerged in Vietnam, demonstrating the positive impact of tourism on rural communities. Examples include the traditional craft villages in Hoi An, where visitors can engage in hands-on activities and support local artisans, and the ethnic minority homestays in Sapa, where tourists can experience the unique traditions and lifestyles of minority groups. These initiatives have not only generated income for the communities but also fostered cultural preservation, pride, and a sense of identity.

C. Socio-economic benefits for local communities (employment, income generation, cultural preservation)

The socio-economic benefits of tourism extend to local communities in various ways. Tourism-related activities create employment opportunities for community members, especially in rural and remote areas where alternative job prospects may be limited. Income generation through tourism helps to alleviate poverty, improve living standards, and enhance access to education and healthcare. Additionally, tourism acts as a catalyst for cultural preservation, as communities strive to showcase their traditional customs, rituals, music, and cuisine to visitors, fostering a sense of pride and continuity in their heritage.

Challenges and Potential Risks

A. over-tourism and its impact on local communities and natural resources.

The rapid growth of tourism in certain popular destinations has led to concerns of over-tourism, resulting in overcrowding, strain on infrastructure, environmental degradation, and cultural commodification. It is crucial to strike a balance between tourism growth and the preservation of local communities, their way of life, and the natural resources that attract visitors. Sustainable tourism practices, destination management strategies, and visitor dispersal efforts are vital to mitigate the negative impacts of over-tourism.

B. Environmental sustainability and responsible tourism practices

As Vietnam experiences a surge in tourism, environmental sustainability becomes a pressing concern. Sustainable tourism practices are essential to protect and preserve the country’s diverse ecosystems, natural attractions, and biodiversity. Measures such as waste management, energy conservation, promoting eco-friendly transportation options, and supporting responsible wildlife encounters contribute to maintaining the ecological integrity of tourist destinations.

C. Vulnerability to external factors (natural disasters, global crises)

The tourism industry is vulnerable to external factors, including natural disasters and global crises. Vietnam, being susceptible to typhoons, floods, and other climatic events, must develop robust disaster preparedness and response plans to ensure the safety and security of tourists. Moreover, global crises such as pandemics, economic downturns, or political instability can significantly impact tourist arrivals and revenue. Diversification of tourism products, proactive risk management, and the implementation of crisis management strategies are crucial in mitigating potential risks.

Policies and Initiatives

A. overview of the strategies and policies supporting tourism.

These initiatives include improving infrastructure, enhancing visitor experiences, streamlining visa procedures, and promoting investment in the tourism sector. The government’s commitment to creating a favourable business environment and facilitating public-private partnerships has been instrumental in attracting investments and fostering tourism development.

B. Discussion of initiatives to promote sustainable tourism practices

Sustainable tourism practices are at the forefront of the government’s agenda. Initiatives aimed at promoting responsible tourism and sustainable development include campaigns to raise awareness among tourists and industry stakeholders about environmental conservation, cultural preservation, and community engagement. Certification programs and guidelines for sustainable tourism have been introduced to encourage industry players to adopt environmentally and socially responsible practices.

C. Public-private partnerships and collaboration for tourism development

Collaboration between the public and private sectors is vital for the sustainable development of the tourism industry. Public-private partnerships play a significant role in infrastructure development, marketing and promotion, skills training, and destination management. By leveraging the expertise, resources, and knowledge of both sectors, these partnerships can drive innovation, improve service quality, and ensure the long-term viability of Vietnam’s tourism industry.

In conclusion, the impact of tourism on the economy of Vietnam cannot be overstated. The thriving tourism industry has brought about substantial economic benefits, contributing to the country’s GDP, creating employment opportunities, and boosting foreign exchange earnings. The investments in tourism infrastructure have enhanced accessibility and visitor experiences, while local businesses and entrepreneurs have flourished, capitalizing on the growing demand for goods and services.

Tourism has also played a crucial role in promoting rural and community development, empowering local communities, and  preserving cultural heritage . Through community-based tourism initiatives, rural areas have experienced economic diversification, reduced poverty, and cultural revitalization. However, challenges such as over-tourism, environmental sustainability, and vulnerability to external factors require careful management and strategic planning to ensure the long-term sustainability of the industry.

With the commitment to responsible tourism and the implementation of practical measures, Vietnam is well-positioned to harness the potential of tourism while preserving its natural and cultural treasures.

As Vietnam continues to evolve as a premier tourist destination, it is essential to strike a balance between economic growth and sustainable development. By prioritizing responsible tourism practices, preserving the environment, and respecting local communities, Vietnam can secure a prosperous future for its tourism industry and ensure that the economic benefits are enjoyed by all stakeholders.

Through strategic planning, collaboration, and a commitment to sustainable tourism, Vietnam can continue to enchant visitors with its beauty, culture, and warm hospitality while reaping the rewards of a thriving tourism economy well into the future.

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Assessing the impact of COVID-19 to tourism and adaptation strategies: a case study in Thua Thien Hue, Vietnam

Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic are beyond health effects; it has disrupted many socioeconomic activities and pushed many people into job loss. Tourism is one of the industries that is impacted the most by the COVID-19 pandemic because of country lockdown, travel restriction, and social distancing to reduce its impacts. Vietnam is controlling the pandemic well in comparison to other countries. However, tourism still faces up many difficulties to overcome. Therefore, a robust assessment about the impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on tourism is needed to establish suitable, effective adaptation strategies. In this study, comparison and survey methods are used to understand the impacts and the difficulties that tourism and tourism enterprises have to suffer during the COVID-19 pandemic. From the analyzed data combined with the COVID-19 scenario in Vietnam to propose adaptation strategies for each scenario. This study provides a theoretical basis for the decision-makers to manage tourism during the COVID-19 pandemic.

1. Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic is an ongoing global health crisis of the world caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). The first identified case was in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared it as a pandemic in March 2020. Because COVID-19 pandemic can spread rapidly, social distancing and lockdown are effective interventions to slow it down. However, it is creating unprecedented stresses to other aspects of socioeconomy. Fernandes (2020) suggests that each additional month of COVID-19 costs 2.5%–3% of global GDP approximately and service is being impacted the most. One of the industries that has been affected massively is tourism because of travel restriction.

In the past, there were a lot of time that health crisis impacted to tourism industry. In 2003, the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) had major impacts on politic and economy ( Wilder-Smith, 2005 ). International tourism visitors fell 1.2% in 2003 with a drop of 9%, about 12 million visitors in Asia and the Pacific in the months of outbreak compared to 2002. In 2006, due to the impacts of Avian Flu, Brahmbhatt (2005) estimated that 5% of tourism visitors were decreased, equivalent with 0.4% GDP decline in Vietnam. However, in the COVID-19 pandemic crisis, the impacts are bigger in all aspects. According to World Travel & Tourism Council (2020) , 112.1 million to 197.5 million jobs related to travel and tourism are projected to lose depending on different scenarios. Same as that travel and tourism GPD losses are estimated from 3.4 trillion to 5.4 trillion USD.

Being no exception, the COVID-19 has impacted severely to Vietnam since the first case was identified on January 23, 2020. Until the end of October 2020, 1180 infected persons with 35 deaths were reported. It can be divided into two waves: the first wave from January 23 to July 24, 2020, with no death loss, and the second wave from July 25 after 99 days without new community case transmission. All the deaths until now are from second wave. Due to the impacts of the COVID-19, Vietnam economy has a huge drop. According to General Statistics Office of Vietnam (GSO), Vietnam's GDP growth target was set at 6.8% in 2020 compared to 2019 but it has only increased 2.91% in 2020 ( General Statistic Office of Vietnam, 2020 ).

According to Vietnam National Administration of Tourism (VNAT), tourism directly contributed 9.2% of Vietnam GDP in 2019 with 18 million of international visitors and 85 million of domestic visitors. However, as of the end of September 2020, international and domestic reached about 3.8 million and 35.7 million, down 67.4 and 53.76% over the same period in 2019, respectively. Vietnam tourism GDP losses are estimated 23 million USD.

Thua Thien Hue is a famous tourism province in the North Central Vietnam. It has diversified and rich tourism resources. According to Thua Thien Hue Tourism Promotion Center (TTHDOT), the average growth rate of visitors is about 12% per year, of which the structure of international tourists accounts for 40%–45% of total visitors. Tourism revenue increases 14% per year on average. In 2020, the fast and complicated developments of pandemic in the world and Vietnam in the negative direction have greatly affected the tourism industry of Thua Thien Hue. Therefore, there is a need in assessing the current situation correctly and appropriate adaptation strategies to support and recover the tourism industry. This study will give an assessment about impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic in two sides. The first one is to understand general impacts of current situation of Thua Thien Hue tourism industry by comparing tourism indicators of 2020 and 2019. The second one is to find out deeply the impact of COVID-19 to tourism enterprises of accommodation, travel trade, and travel service by surveying relevant enterprises and government authorities. Finally, adaptation strategies are proposed based on the data from two sides and the potential COVID-19 scenario in the future.

The outcomes of this study can be helpful in proposing strategies to adapt with the COVID-19 for decision-makers of tourism, especially in Thua Thien Hue province. It is the base for implementing specific tourism plans and assigning tasks to related authorities to ensure the fastest and most effective recovery of the tourism industry while ensuring safety for tourists and community in the coming time.

2. Methodology

Fig. 24.1 shows the methodology flowchart of this research that is including two main processes: comparative approach and tourism enterprise approach.

Methodology flowchart.

Comparative method is a method of investigation based on comparison. In this research, comparative approach aims to make comparison to find out the differences of tourism results before and during COVID-19 by comparing same tourism indicators in different time scale of 2019 and 2020; thence, understanding the impacts of COVID-19 to tourism in different aspects of indicators. The data are collected from Thua Thien Hue Department of Tourism. The chosen indicators are shown in Table 24.1 which are number of domestic and international visitors, number of days serviced by accommodation establishments, and total revenue. Each indicator reflects each aspect of tourism results. Number of domestic and international visitors shows the difference in traveling behavior to Thua Thien Hue province before and after worldwide outbreaks of the COVID-19. Comparing the total number of visitors and total revenue in 2019 with 2020 helps to have an overall impact of COVID-19 to tourism. Comparing number of domestic visitors with international visitors shows how country lockdown impacts to tourism. Number of days serviced by accommodation establishments points out the average duration of a trip for one person.

Table 24.1

List of indicators.

Tourism enterprise approach will help to understand the difficulties and preparation of tourism enterprises during COVID-19. In this study, 563 questionnaires were sent directly to 563 tourism enterprises to get information about impacts of the COVID-19 that focus in revenue, workforce, and activities to do during COVID-19. The travel service enterprises include 15 transportation agencies, 17 restaurants and catering services, 7 specialty and gift business units, 3 art and entertainment services, and 1 health-care service.

The survey was proceeded and completed in June of 2020, which is during the last period of the first wave of the COVID-19 in Vietnam. Thua Thien Hue Tourism Promotion Center was supported in doing in person survey for this research. The respondents were owners of the enterprises, or senior staffs who were in charge of human resources and finance in the enterprises.

From the results of two processes, an overview about impacts of COVID-19 to tourism industry in Thua Thien Hue province will be given out. From the overview, adaptation strategies will be prosed based on different scenarios of COVID-19. Scenarios are established by using expert opinion method and group discussion. Experts are nine persons from Thua Thien Hue Department of Tourism and Tourism Department of Hue University.

3. Study area

Thua Thien Hue is a province located in the North Central of Vietnam with 9 districts and city. Administrative boundaries are defined as follows: The East borders with East Sea; the West borders with Laos; the North borders with Quang Tri, a province in the North Central of Vietnam; and the South borders with the South Central Coast of Viet Nam. This is one of the provinces with strong tourism development in Vietnam because it has diversified and rich tourism resources. On the side of cultural and historical tourism, this province was the capital of the last feudal dynasty of Vietnam. It is a multicultural province, still preserving many cultural heritages, national ranked monuments, unique architectural works, and intangible cultural values. The most prominent is the Complex of Hue monuments which were listed as a World Cultural Heritage by UNESCO. On the side of recreational tourism, Thua Thien Hue is the transitional boundary of the climate in the North and the South of Vietnam. It has a lot of beautiful sights with high mountains, long sandy beaches, beautiful rivers, and springs; especially, this province has the largest lagoon system in South East Asia – Tam Giang – Cau Hai lagoon in the East ( Fig. 24.2 ).

Thua Thien Hue administrative map.

In the period from 2016 to 2019, with tourism resources and favorable geographical location and the efforts of developing tourism of the whole province, the tourism industry of Thua Thien Hue has had strong development steps, achieving positive results. The average growth rate of visitors to this period is about 12% per year, of which the structure of international visitors accounts for 40% to 45%. Tourism revenue increases 14% per year on average.

In 2019, the total number of visitors to Thua Thien Hue reached 4817 million (up 11.18% over the same period in 2018), in which, international visitors reached 2186 million (up 12.06% over the same period); guests staying at 2247 million arrivals (up 7.30%). Revenue from accommodation establishments in 2019 reached 4945 billion VND, an increase of 10.54% compared to 2018; total revenue from tourism reached 11,300 billion. Compared to other provinces in the region as well as the whole country, Thua Thien Hue tourism growth is not too fast but sustainable, synchronizing with tourism development strategy of the province.

In Thua Thien Hue, there are currently 667 accommodation establishments, with a total of 11,508 rooms; 18,801 beds; 78 companies, branches, representative offices, travel agents; 38 tourism transport enterprises; and many tourist service enterprises. By the end of 2019, there are about 16,000 direct employees in the tourism business, including accommodation, travel trade, tour guides, and restaurants specializing in tourism and other services. In addition, there are a number of employees who are indirectly involved in tourism such as sales units, community-based tourism, ecotourism, and a number of other related departments.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. impacts of the covid-19 pandemic on growth indicators of thua thien hue tourism, 4.1.1. number of visitors.

Before the widespread outbreak of the COVID-19, tourism activities in Thua Thien Hue still achieved positive results. However, the fast and complicated developments of pandemic in the world and in the country in the negative direction have greatly affected the tourism industry of Vietnam in general and Thua Thien Hue in particular. Because of the impacts of COVID-19, the number of visitors in 2020 has been drastically low in comparison to 2019. In Fig. 24.3 , it can be seen that in January 2020, the number of visitors coming to Thua Thien Hue reached 479,101 arrivals, an increase of 22.07% over 2019. This is the period right before COVID-19 outbreak in Vietnam. From February to December 2020, the number of visitors is lower over the same period in 2019. Especially, April has the lowest number of visitors which is only 5327 arrivals, down 98.81% over the same period. The reason is from April 1 to 15, 2020, Vietnam implemented social isolation all over the country. After April 2020, Vietnam controlled the COVID-19 pandemic; there was no cases in community for 99 days. In addition, summer is domestic tourism season in Vietnam. Therefore, from May to July 2019, there is an increasing trend in the number of visitors; however, the second wave of the COVID-19 that came from July 25 breaks that trend. After controlling the second wave of the COVID-19, Thua Thien Hue province has experienced a series of disasters including typhoons, floods, and landslides, plus low domestic tourism season; the number of visitors by month from August to December is steady by lower than the period of May to July. In comparing over the same period in 2019, it is only about one-fourth to one-fifth.

Number of visitors to Thua Thien Hue by month in 2019 and 2020.

Fig. 24.4 shows proportion of domestic and international visitors by month in 2019 and 2020. It can be clearly identified that international visitors have a big proportion in 2019 from a half to two-fifths in the total number of visitors, but in 2020, international visitors have a small proportion because of travel restriction and country lockdown during the COVID-19 period. In January 2020, the number of international visitors is 264,075 arrivals, increasing 33.6% compared to January 2019. However, it has gone down since February 2020. Specifically, the number of visitors has never got over 7000 arrivals by month from April to December 2020. Thus, in case of the COVID-19 pandemic continues in 2021 and further, Thua Thien Hue province should pay more attention in developing domestic tourism market to attract more domestic visitors.

Proportion of domestic and international visitors by month in 2019 and 2020

4.1.2. Overnight accommodation and total revenue

Overnight accommodation and total revenue from tourism in Thua Thien Hue have the same decreasing trend as the number of visitors ( Figure 24.5 , Figure 24.6 ). In January of 2020, overnight accommodation was 204,323 days, and total revenue was 1,018,000 million VND, increasing around 12% for both indicators compared to January of 2019. However, the trends are decreasing after that with the lowest in April. In April of 2020, overnight accommodation and total revenue were 6675 days and 26,525 million VND, only achieved 3.1% and 2.4%, respectively, compared to same month of 2019. The increasing trends could be observed from May to July then dropped again in August and stayed steady to December. In the period after national lockdown in April, there is only 1 month the number of overnight accommodation got over 50% compared to same month of 2019 which was July with 59%. The other months are from 30% to 48%. The number of total revenue by month is worse; the highest month is July with about 47% compared to July of 2019. The other months are from 12% to 35% compared to the same month of 2019. This is proved that Thua Thien Hue tourism depends more on international visitors than domestic visitors in term of total revenue.

Overnight accommodation by month in 2019 and 2020.

Total revenue by month in 2019 and 2020.

4.2. Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism enterprises in Thua Thien Hue

4.2.1. accommodation enterprises.

The main types of tourist accommodation are guest houses and hostel ( Fig. 24.7 ). However, the number of rooms in hotels and resorts accounts for the majority: 8531 rooms out of a total of 11,508 rooms. The number of rooms in other types is not large, only 2977 rooms. The main form of ownership is private enterprise, accounting for 81.4%; 3.7% of joint stock companies; 2.2% of state-owned enterprises; 1.1% of foreign direct investment ( Fig. 24.8 ).

Type of accommodation enterprise in survey.

Ownership information of accommodation enterprises in survey.

Survey data from 472 accommodation enterprises showed that 89% of total employees were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic (6228 people, including the board of directors, heads of departments, and staffs) in which staffs are most impacted, 5376 people (accounting for 86% of affected employees), followed by department heads with 538 people ( Fig. 24.9 ). Notably, in order to minimize the damage caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the majority of accommodation enterprises implement personnel policies. Specifically, there are 2469 labors with pay cut and job cut; 669 labors on unpaid leave with support; 936 people with job quit (accounting for 16%); unpaid leave without support is 1298 people (12.6%).

Situation of impacted labors of accommodation enterprises.

About activities during the COVID-19 pandemic, 32.5% of accommodation enterprises renovated and upgraded their facility and trained their key staffs to be ready to welcome visitors when COVID-19 pandemic is controlled.

4.2.2. Travel trade enterprises

Of the 48 surveyed enterprises, the ownership forms of travel companies are mainly joint stock and limited liability companies (72.9%). Fig. 24.10 shows that there are 647 impacted labors (including board of directors, department heads, staffs, and tour guides) in which staffs are affected the most (accounting for 63.6% of impacted labors). In travel trade enterprises, only 4% of the total impacted labors quit job, and 23.6% of the labors leave with support. However, the number of labors who quit their jobs without any support accounts for 41%.

Situation of impacted labors of travel trade enterprises.

Although travel trade enterprises are closed during the pandemic, there are still many activities to prepare for the postpandemic. From the survey, 66.7% of enterprises conduct research on new products and services; 56% do research new markets; 50% develop promotion plans for the next period. The rest are some activities such as training human resources (45.8%), restructuring (31.25%), and upgrading facilities (16.7%).

4.2.3. Tourism service enterprises

The main ownership form of tourism service enterprises is joint stock and limited liability companies, accounting for 39.5%, followed by private enterprises (23.3%) and individual enterprises (20.9%). Fig. 24.11 shows situation of impacted labors of tourism service enterprises. The total number of employees in this category is 1003 people, of which 879 are impacted by COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, the number of impacted labors accounts for 87.6%. Staffs are still the most affected, accounting for 84%; 37.3% of labors on unpaid leave with support; unpaid leave labors without support still account for a high proportion, 33.7%.

Situation of impacted labors of tourism service enterprises.

The survey results also show that during the pandemic, 34.9% of enterprises conducted a number of activities such as training human resources, developing promotion plans (27.9%), researching new markets (27.9%), upgrading facilities (25%), and restructuring (14%).

4.2.4. General situation of tourism enterprises

In general, the survey results of tourism enterprises show that the revenue situation has decreased sharply, not enough costs to operate the business. Most companies are forced to adopt policies to reduce staffs, adjust salaries for their employees, or take unpaid leave until the end of COVID-19. Survey results show that there are nearly 8000 workers directly affected, but if including indirect workforces such as tour guides, seasonal workers, short term contract, etc. This number is over 13,000 people.

Particularly, in February of 2020 the number of canceled rooms was about 16,000; the number of guests was about 29,000 visitors. For travel services, the number of canceled tours was 230 tours; the number of canceled guests was about 7 passengers. In the first half of March, tour and room cancellation increased sharply, more than 80% of the tourism businesses stopped operating. In April of 2020, nearly 100% of guests canceled rooms and tours, and the travel business stopped operating.

5. Discussion

5.1. adaptation strategies based on scenario of covid-19.

The adaptation strategies depend on scenario of controlling COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam. They are consulted from experts' opinions and Central Government decisions. To adapt with the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam, the Central Government has been promulgated a number of guiding documents. Here are the most important guidelines:

• • Directive No.15: Directive No.15/CT-TTg was promulgated about drastically implementing the prevention and control in the peak period of COVID-19 pandemic by the Prime Minister on March 27, 2020
• • Directive No.16: Directive No.16/CT-TTg was promulgated about taking urgent measures to prevent and control the COVID-19 pandemic by the Prime Minister on March 31, 2020
• • Directive No.19: Directive No.19/CT-TTg was promulgated about continuing to implement measures to prevent and control the COVID-19 epidemic in the new situation by the Prime Minister on April 24, 2020
• • Ministry of Health's handbook: Handbook “ Guidelines for COVID-19 prevention and control in the community in the new normal

Table 24.2 describes the differences between Directive No.15, No.16, and No.19. Directive No.16 is the strictest, which is applied in severe situation. Otherwise, Directive No.19 is applied in the new normal, from the guiding documents of the Central Government. The scenarios of controlling COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam and adaptation measures for Thua Thien Hue tourism are shown in Table 24.3 .

Table 24.2

The differences of Directive No.15, No.16, and No.19.

Table 24.3

Scenario of controlling COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam and adaptation measures for tourism.

In general, all four scenarios are focusing on domestic tourism than international tourism based on the difference situation between Vietnam and the world. While Vietnam is controlling the pandemic quite well, the situation outside Vietnam border is a different story when the speed of transmission is still very high, and the rehab ability of international tourism is low. Thus, prioritizing to develop domestic tourism is reasonable in the case of Thua Thien Hue province and Vietnam. In all four scenarios, pandemic prevention measures must always be ensured as directed by the Central Government.

Scenario 1 is perfect scenario. There is no transmission case in community and government can put all their efforts in economic development. There is no fluctuation, and everything goes straight as a line; so that, it is called ‘line scenario.’ This is the best scenario under the COVID-19 situation. In this scenario, tourism has great advantages to rehab in domestic tourism. However, to stand out in competition with other provinces which also focuses in domestic tourism, Thua Thien Hue province has to build strong brand, develop new tourism products, and improve the quality of the current ones. In this scenario, tourism activities have to follow Ministry of Health's handbook for COVID-19 prevention and control.

In scenario 2, there are some transmission cases in other provinces and the government can control them. The impacts of transmission cases are not too much to Thua Thien Hue province. It is defined as ‘V scenario’ with more fluctuation than ‘line scenario.’ This scenario is close to current reality of Vietnam and Thua Thien Hue province because even Vietnam did a great job in controlling the COVID-19; there are still some cases in community because of migration and bad management in quarantine area. Luckily, all of those cases are controlled promptly. Same as line scenario, tourism in this scenario pays more attention in domestic tourism development. However, there should be a mechanism to manage big events with crowded people to limit the possibility of transmission in society. Therefore, Directive No.19 should be applied for tourism activities.

Scenario 3 describes the disruption of the COVID-19 to society in general and tourism in particular. The situation changes continuously because transmission cases appear consecutively in other provinces and create indirect impacts to the efforts of the COVID-19 controlling of Thua Thien Hue province. In this scenario, the pandemic can be controlled but the government has to put a lot of efforts to respond with it. It is described as ‘W scenario’ because of its instability. Tourism in ‘W scenario’ can be implemented but depends on provincial resources. Stricter regulations in controlling the COVID-19 in tourism is needed to prevent community transmission such as Directive No.15. Big events with crowded people should be banned. Instead, tourism should be changed to focus on types with small groups.

Scenario 4 is the worst scenario out of all four. The pandemic outbreak is so severe with transmission within provincial community or nationwide, and travel restriction and provincial lockdown is applied. It drops from good spot to crisis spot and maintains there like an L shape; so it is called ‘L scenario.’ In this case, Directive No.16 must be applied, and tourism should put all its ability to help the government to fight against the COVID-19 to overcome the crisis. Tourism buildings can be used as quarantine areas. Tourism authorities should take actions as well as discuss with higher levels and other authorities to help tourism workforces by supporting packages or temporary job change. In the meantime, government and responsible authorities should prepare and conduct strategies for rehabilitation of tourism after the COVID-19 is controlled.

5.2. Adaptation activities and strategies for tourism of Thua Thien Hue province

Based on the current pandemic situation in Vietnam and the province, Thua Thien Hue government has already given strategies for in the short term and long term. In the short term, focusing on attracting domestic visitors, especially visitors from North and South, retail customers, and families. Tourism has to be always ready to welcome international visitors right after the pandemic is controlled. Improving the quality and diversity of tourism products and developing new products; and organizing high-quality festivals and attractive events such as Hue Festival, traditional events, and sport events.

Thua Thien Hue province has already taken a lot of activities to adapt with the COVID-19 reflecting given strategies. These activities can be categorized into five main groups. The first group is to implement mechanisms and packages to support tourism with specific activities of reducing taxes, fees, and prices of state-owned products, supporting in bank loans, unemployment insurance, communication, and promotion. The second one is to stimulate tourism demand to encourage domestic visitors to use services and come to destinations within Thua Thien Hue province such as ticket free, ticket discounts, etc. The third one is to develop new products prioritizing to develop products of meetings, incentives, conferencing, exhibitions (MICE) tourism, ecotourism, and community-based tourism. The fourth is to deploy promotion activities via different platforms and channels from traditional channels such as newspapers, television, magazines, etc., to others such as social media, influencers, etc., to enhance provincial tourism brand within domestic tourism market. The last one is to ensure safety for visitors to Hue and the community, and a green, clean, and friendly environment.

6. Conclusion

This study attempts to find out the impacts of COVID-19 to tourism in Vietnam with a case study in Thua Thien Hue province, and propose adaptation strategies under four scenarios of COVID-19 in the future. The results show that the COVID-19 pandemic impacts severely to Thua Thien Hue tourism with decreasing trends in the number of visitors, the number of days in overnight accommodation, and total revenue. The trends are related to the development of the COVID-19 in Vietnam. The tourism of the province received good result in January before outbreak of the COVID-19. The lowest point was in April when the whole country locks down. The second lowest point was in August right after the second wave. In the survey of tourism enterprises, the results showed that 89% of labors are impacted and general staffs are impacted the most. The adaptation strategies of tourism are developed based on the expert opinions and group discussion about the potential development of the COVID-19 in Vietnam in the future. The results show that the government should put all their efforts in controlling the pandemic to create safe environment to develop tourism and putting most of their efforts in stimulating domestic tourism. This research has a limitation. The research only focuses on assessing negative impacts of the COVID-19 but has not assessed the positive impacts 19 to Thua Thien Hue tourism such as improving in natural environment. However, Thua Thien Hue is not a high density spot of tourists; the negative impacts are more dominant to the positive ones.

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University students' perceptions of tourism impacts: a study in Vietnam

Southeast Asia: A Multidisciplinary Journal

ISSN : 1819-5091

Article publication date: 19 October 2023

Research about tourism impacts is abundant. However, existing studies often investigate tourism impacts from residents’ and tourists’ perspectives. The study targeting students is absent. The students’ perception and evaluation of tourism impact must be investigated independently to have more insights into improving the current education curriculum, which covertly addresses the impacts. Therefore, this study aims to examine university students’ perception of tourism impacts as young tourists to provide implications for better teaching of such content in the future.

Design/methodology/approach

Vietnam was chosen as the context, and a mixed method was employed. First, free elicitation with 118 university students was carried out to identify the students’ perceived impacts (109 items, four categories). Second, structured surveys using the previously generated content with 243 and 224 university students were implemented to identify the latent structures of the impacts (3-4 factors per impact category).

Tourism impacts can be dually perceived. In other words, they can come in positive or negative forms or are directed toward the destinations or the residents. However, being positive or negative, or affecting the place or the people, tourism impacts have some general and universal elements concerning the economic, sociocultural and environmental ones. In addition, they have some specific and contextual aspects, such as cross-border marriages, child labor and economic autonomy loss.

Originality/value

Tourism impacts seen from the perspective of university students are relatable and valuable for tourism education. Educators in Vietnam should consider revising the current curriculum to address all the tourism impacts overtly.

Tourism impacts

• University students

Nghiêm-Phú, B. , Hoàng, T.T.-T. , Kiều, H.T. and Vũ, H.L. (2023), "University students' perceptions of tourism impacts: a study in Vietnam", Southeast Asia: A Multidisciplinary Journal , Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/SEAMJ-06-2023-0043

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2023, Bình Nghiêm-Phú, Trang Thị-Thu Hoàng, Hương Thu Kiều and Hương Lan Vũ

Published in Southeast Asia: A Multidisciplinary Journal . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

Tourism is one of the essential industries in the economies of many countries, including Vietnam. Therefore, education about tourism impacts also is an essential activity. However, educators primarily emphasize tourism’s economic impact ( Menon, Gunasekar, Dixit, Das, & Mandal, 2022 ). In other words, educators in the field may unintentionally neglect or covertly address other aspects of tourism impacts, such as the socio-cultural and environmental ones. Therefore, expanding the current curriculum to overtly educate students about all the potential impacts of tourism is necessary.

Research on tourism impacts, nonetheless, often investigates these issues from the residents’ perspective ( Easterling, 2004 ; Gursoy, Ouyang, Nunkoo, & Wei, 2019 ). Research about tourism impacts from the tourists’ viewpoints is scarce ( De Urioste-Stone, Scaccia, & Howe-Poteet, 2015 ; Joo & Woosnam, 2019 ; Moyle, Weiler, & Croy, 2013 ; Prideaux, McNamara, & Thompson, 2012 ). The study on university students’ perception and evaluation of tourism impacts is absent. As young adults without much living and working experience, university students may find it difficult to relate to the impacts from other people’s perspectives. Thus, the students’ opinions must be investigated independently for more insights into improving the current education curriculum. The meaningfulness and effectiveness of the new curriculum may be strengthened if the impacts are assessed directly from the students’ points of view.

The abovementioned issues are also apparent in Vietnam’s context. Specifically, university educators and students in the country were more concerned about the tourism industry’s macro and personal economic impacts than the others ( Buzinde et al. , 2018 ; Le, McDonald, & Klieve, 2018 ). University students’ opinions about tourism impacts were neglected ( Adongo, Choe, & Han, 2017 ; Suntikul et al. , 2016 ).

Therefore, this study examines Vietnamese university students’ perception of tourism impacts. It identifies the individual and latent dimensions of tourism impacts via a mixed design (qualitative → quantitative). The outcomes are helpful for tourism students’ future education ( McKercher & Prideaux, 2011 ; Yuan, 2014 ). They will also enrich the literature on tourism impacts.

Literature review

Tourism has many impacts on the destinations and their residents, both positive and negative. On the one hand, tourism participates in planning and implementing development plans for tourist destinations, creating more jobs and income for residents ( Alonso, Bressan, O’Shea, & Krajsic, 2015 ; Shin, 2010 ). In addition, the sector helps protect and preserve the natural and cultural resources of the destinations and provides suitable environments for residents to live in and be proud of ( Tervo-Kankare, Kaján, & Saarinen, 2018 ; Wang & Bramwell, 2012 ).

On the other hand, tourism causes price increases in real estate and other public products and services, and different stakeholders may have unequally distributed tourism income ( Mbaiwa, 2017 ; Nghiêm-Phú & Shibuya, 2021 ). Moreover, tourism may expose too many unwanted pressures on the infrastructure and socio-cultural conditions of the destinations ( Nghiêm-Phú & Shibuya, 2021 ; Postma & Schmuecker, 2017 ). Considering these impacts, residents may want to support or oppose the further development of tourism in their locations ( Eslami, Khalifah, Mardani, Streimikiene, & Han, 2019 ; Kim & Kang, 2020 ).

In addition, tourism can also generate some intrinsic impacts for tourists. For example, tourism experiences can make tourists happier and have a better quality of life ( Chen, Petrick, & Shahvali, 2016 ). Happy tourists may return to the destinations and spread good word-of-mouth about the destinations to their acquaintances ( Pai, Liu, Kang, & Dai, 2020 ). However, preparing for the holidays and encountering harmful incidents (e.g. accidents, diseases and relationships with others) during the trips may dampen tourists’ moods and feelings ( Agate, Agate, & Birchler, 2015 ; Crawford, Jackson, & Godbey, 1991 ). Consequently, many people may hesitate to go on holiday, while many tourists may not want to repeat their trips to the destinations.

On the other hand, tourists also know the external impacts their activities can cause on the destinations. Tourists’ perceived impacts, interestingly, are not different from those perceived by residents, including the economic, sociocultural, environmental and psychological categories ( De Urioste-Stone et al. , 2015 ; Moyle et al. , 2013 ; Prideaux et al. , 2012 ). However, how they evaluate the impacts may differ from how the residents see them ( Puczkó & Rátz, 2000 ).

Overall, the perceived impacts of tourism vary across destinations and types of tourism activities ( Canteiro, Córdova-Tapia, & Brazeiro, 2018 ; MacNeill & Wozniak, 2018 ; Wang, Huang, Gong, & Cao, 2020 ). The perceptions may also differ among age and occupation groups ( Jaafar, Rasoolimanesh, & Ismail, 2017 ; Sharma & Dyer, 2009 ). Thus, perceived tourism impacts can be highly subjective and context-based. Therefore, a study on university students’ perception of these issues is essential.

Tourism impacts education

To make tourism a sustainable industry, tourism education curricula at universities should include tourism impacts ( Boley, 2011 ). Unfortunately, this content is often primarily underestimated ( Menon et al. , 2022 ). University educators’ priorities seem to be the strengthening of the academia-industry relationships ( Anderson & Sanga, 2019 ; Jennings, Cater, Hales, Kensbock, & Hornby, 2015 ; Mei, 2019 ) and the adaptation of advanced technologies ( Fatima, Ghandforoush, Khan, & Di Mascio, 2019 ; Qiu, Li, & Li, 2021 ; Schott, 2017 ). In other words, tourism education mainly associates itself with the business world while overlooking its role in addressing social issues ( Caton, 2014 ).

In addition to curriculum-based education, extracurricular activities may further help with tourism impacts education. For example, field trips, both real and virtual, give university students the opportunities to see and hear directly about tourism impacts, especially from the businesses’ and residents’ perspectives ( Schott, 2017 ). Volunteer projects can also create similar effects ( Palacios, 2010 ). From a recreational standpoint, holidays and trips can give university students first-hand knowledge about the tourism industry’s impacts on the destinations ( Cohen, 2011 ). Activities taken during said holidays and trips can also alert university students about the (ir)responsible and (un)sustainable behaviors ( Poudel & Nyaupane, 2013 ). These out-campus exercises can inform students about all types of tourism impacts, both business- and non-business-related.

Nonetheless, the abovementioned extracurricular or out-campus initiatives are only random and sporadic. Although their contributions are invaluable and can help support and enrich the on-campus programs, tourism impact content must be embedded in regular curricula to ensure the meaningfulness and effectiveness of tourism education.

Given the exploratory nature of this study, a mixed method was selected ( Figure 1 ). Initially, the researchers implemented qualitative research to identify the specific impacts that university students could relate to (step 1). After that, they implemented quantitative research to reveal the latent dimensions of students’ perceived impacts (step 2). The researchers followed Worthington and Whittaker (2006) when generating (step 1) and structuring (step 2) the tourism impact items and factors. The research process is visualized in Figure 1 .

Qualitative study

With extensive research on tourism impacts, it was easy and convenient to create a pool of individual tourism impact items by reviewing the literature. However, this conventional method was inappropriate since previous studies did not target university students from the learners’ perspective. Instead, the researchers asked the university students in Vietnam to directly and personally talk about their perceived impacts ( Worthington & Whittaker, 2006 ).

Specifically, the research group qualitatively surveyed their university’s tourism students in an illustrative single-case approach ( Thomas, 2011 ). This design was because tourism students in Vietnam could be regarded as relatively homogenous compared to those of other majors, given the job market trends and the admission requirements ( Trà My, 2023 ). Surveying one faculty’s students still had an illustrative value. Noticeably, the involved faculty belonged to a public university based in Hanoi, the capital city of Vietnam.

Initially, one researcher of the research group asked the students in their classes to write about the impacts of tourism as a part of their assignments. Before this undertaking, this researcher mentioned tourism impacts in their previous classes to guarantee that the students understood the primary concept of impact, although tourism impacts were not part of their curriculum. In the essay, the researcher asked the students to directly describe their latest tourism experiences (question 1) and the impacts of their holidays and trips (question 2) ( Bennett, 1984 ; Reilly, 1990 ). This free elicitation method ensured that the students’ perception of tourism impacts was derived from their primary encounters with the tourism industry ( Cohen, 2011 ; Poudel & Nyaupane, 2013 ). Information and knowledge gathered through such extracurricular and out-campus encounters were meaningful to projecting and delivering future curricular and on-campus educational content.

The research group received a total of 118 essays in October 2020. All students took at least one domestic trip in the previous six months (including internships and other extracurricular activities). After that, all research group members worked together to analyze the content of the essays with total agreement as the measure of reliability ( Elo & Kyngäs, 2008 ; Kassarjian, 1977 ). They identified a total of 109 individual impacts. However, further thematic analysis ( Braun & Clarke, 2006 ) suggested four different categories: the positive impacts on the destinations (n = 37), the positive impacts on the residents (n = 17), the negative impacts on the destinations (n = 30), and the negative impacts on the residents (n = 25). These outcomes were consistent with the existing literature’s observation about the dual impacts of tourism (positive-negative) and double impact recipients (destination-resident) ( Alonso et al. , 2015 ; Postma & Schmuecker, 2017 ). Thus, they were valid and reliable (results triangulation; Oppermann, 2000 ).

Quantitative study

Although the individual impacts and the impact categories were already identified and triangulated, the substantial amounts of individual items suggested that there might be some hidden factors in each category. Therefore, the research group implemented a quantitative survey to identify the latent structures of the tourism impact categories in October and November 2021.

Initially, the research group prepared a questionnaire containing all the impact items generated in the qualitative study (109 items). However, the pre-test of this questionnaire suggested that it was challenging for the participants to stay focused when there were too many questions of a similar nature. Therefore, the research group used two questionnaires in the primary survey, each concerning the positive and negative impacts. The students who did not participate in the qualitative study provided their answers to these questionnaires.

Considering the situational conditions caused by COVID-19, the three local researchers posted the questionnaires (Google Forms) on the social media groups of students administered by themselves in two weeks, one in October 2021 (the first stage, the positive questionnaire) and another in November 2021 (the second stage, the negative questionnaire). A total of 311 and 246 students answered the two questionnaires, respectively. Some students who participated in the first stage did not contribute their answers in the second stage. The reason was that their participation was voluntary, and those who lost their interest or were unavailable during the second survey might drop out.

Although the answers were complete, some had the same evaluation value (totally disagree = 1, disagree = 2, neither disagree nor agree = 3, agree = 4, and totally agree = 5). These contributions were removed from the databases to guarantee the meaningfulness of the data. This undertaking left the usable samples of 243 for the positive impacts (mean age = 18.8; first-year = 51.9%; second-year = 26.7%; third-year = 13.6%; fourth-year and others: 7.8%) and 224 for the negative impacts (mean age = 18.4; first-year = 69.6%; second-year = 25.0%; third-year = 4.5%; fourth-year and others: 0.9%), respectively. The male-to-female ratio was approximately 1:9 since female students comprised most of this tourism faculty.

The data were then factor analyzed in IBM SPSS to identify the hidden factors of each perceived tourism impact category. The outcomes suggested three to four factors underlying each category. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin values of the final solutions were bigger than 0.80, and Bartlett’s Tests of Sphericity were all significant ( p  < 0.000) ( Morgan, Leech, Gloeckner, & Barret, 2004 ). However, the researchers removed from all analyses the items loading on two factors or more, but the gaps between or among the loading values were smaller than 2.0 ( Matsunaga, 2010 ). Eventually, all the loading and communality values of the remaining items exceeded 0.50 and 0.30, respectively ( Morgan et al. , 2004 ). The majority of Cronbach’s alphas of the factors were above 0.70. There were two lower alpha values (0.50 < α < 0.70), but they were acceptable given the exploratory nature of the analysis and the small number of items of the related factors (n = 2) ( Tavakol & Dennick, 2011 ).

Finally, the first researcher of the research group prepared the English version of the impact items since the originals were written in Vietnamese. An independent researcher fluent in English and Vietnamese checked and approved these items to ensure their appropriateness before the researchers presented them in this paper.

From the perspective of Vietnamese university students, the tourism industry can create many positive impacts on the destinations and the residents. In a sense, tourism helps develop the local economy by creating income and revenues, promoting and sustaining the production and service sectors and developing the infrastructure ( Table 1 , factor 1). The industry also helps maintain and beautify the local natural environment and architectural landscape ( Table 1 , factor 2). From the socio-cultural standpoint, tourism is the bridge between residents and tourists, allowing them to understand one another better and appreciate others’ cultures and values ( Table 1 , factor 3). Finally, the industry can spill the effects to other economic sectors, such as banking and health care ( Table 1 , factor 4).

In another sense, tourism can have specific socio-cultural and environmental contributions to the residents, such as pride strengthening, cross-border exchange and contact provision and ability and attitude change ( Table 2 , factor 1). Tourism can also bring many economic benefits, such as income and job opportunities ( Table 2 , factor 2). These impacts are narrower and more personal than those on the destination. Finally, the industry provides opportunities for the female gender to improve their sex role thanks to better financial and social prowess ( Table 2 , factor 3).

On the other hand, according to the university students surveyed, tourism can also negatively impact the destinations. At the destination level, the industry is a noticeable force behind specific social and environmental issues found at the destinations, such as insecurity, loss of peacefulness and environmental pollution ( Table 3 , factor 1). In addition, people often blame the industry for its influences on cultural issues, including the weakening and loss of identity, norms and values ( Table 3 , factor 2). Moreover, tourism can contribute to some economic problems of the destinations, such as ineffective financial resources use and inappropriate planning for future development ( Table 3 , factor 3).

Besides the above impacts, tourism can be another source of distress for residents. First, the health risks and socioeconomic problems are particularly thought to be created, in part, by the activities of tourists and tourism businesses ( Table 4 , factor 1). Second, child labor issues can be observed when tourism is an active economic industry, and children are asked or forced to work there ( Table 4 , factor 2). Third, the loss of economic independence and autonomy can arise when foreign players dominate those of the locals ( Table 4 , factor 3). Fourth, the income gap may be apparent because some people can make more money from tourism and tourists than others ( Table 4 , factor 4). Again, these impacts are directed toward the residents personally and narrowly.

Although eliminated in the quantitative analyses, the other impacts corroborate with the latent factors identified earlier. The overall observation is that tourism’s economic, sociocultural, environmental, and, to some extent, health-related impacts are apparent at both the destination and resident levels. However, while the impacts on the destinations are broad and universal, those on the residents are more specific and personal. For example, “sex role improvement” and “child labor” can be considered specific social impacts directed at female and child residents. In addition, “economic (in)dependence” and “income gain/loss” can be regarded as specific economic impacts involving all residents.

Tourism impacts can be dually perceived. In other words, they can come in positive and negative forms ( Alonso et al. , 2015 ; Mbaiwa, 2017 ; Postma & Schmuecker, 2017 ; Tervo-Kankare et al. , 2018 ; Wang & Bramwell, 2012 ). These impacts can perform their magic for the tourist destinations as a whole. However, from the perspective of the university students, they can also do that to the residents in particular. A place-and-people view of tourism impacts, therefore, also exists.

However, being positive or negative, or affecting the place or the people, tourism impacts seen from the university students’ eyes have some general and universal elements concerning the economic, sociocultural and environmental ones. In addition, they have some specific and contextual aspects as well. Specifically, tourism can create an excellent spill-over effect under an economic calculation that helps develop other economic sectors ( Alola, Cop, & Alola, 2019 ; Ma, Hong, & Zhang, 2015 ). Nonetheless, the participation of more powerful stakeholders from abroad at tourist destinations can threaten the economic independence and autonomy of the local players; this has a harmful impact ( Meyer, 2013 ; Mitchell & Li, 2017 ). Alternatively, from a sociocultural perspective, the excellent contribution of tourism can be apparent in the improvement of women’s roles ( Ferguson, 2011 ; Tajeddini, Walle, & Denisa, 2017 ). Nevertheless, the destructive influence of the industry can be found in the exposure to health risks and the exploitation of child labor ( Jiménez, del Carmen Serrano-Barquín, Villarreal, & Vargas Martínez, 2022 ; Nghiêm-Phú & Shibuya, 2021 ). Noticeably, such specific and contextual impacts are closely associated with developing tourist destinations, such as Vietnam.

These results suggest that university students’ perception and evaluation of tourism impacts are similar to those of other tourists and residents ( De Urioste-Stone et al. , 2015 ; Gursoy et al. , 2019 ; Joo & Woosnam, 2019 ; Moyle et al. , 2013 ; Prideaux et al. , 2012 ). The latent factors’ contents and names may differ among contexts and subjects, but their nature is the same. The structure of tourism impacts, thus, is objective and stable. However, the particular impacts are subjective and flexible. Therefore, the examination of tourism impacts should simultaneously consider these issues.

Practical implications

University students in Vietnam have proper and up-to-date knowledge about tourism impacts thanks to their extracurricular and out-campus experiences. Tourism educators in this country can further contribute to improving or strengthening the students’ understanding by helping them organize the impacts in a structured way. However, they should notify the students about the multifaceted nature of tourism impacts, including the positive-negative, place-people, general-specific and universal-contextual ones. Regarding the last point (contextual impacts), this study’s outcomes suggest several exciting topics for in-depth discussion. First, local women can find partners for their cross-border relationships and marriages when working in tourism ( Statham, Scuzzarello, Sunanta, & Trup, 2020 ). According to the university students surveyed in this study, this impact is positive. Second, some children must work in the sector to help their families. At the same time, many residents may lose their economic autonomy to foreign business people with more resources ( Jiménez et al ., 2022 ; Meyer, 2013 ; Mitchell & Li, 2017 ). According to the surveyed university students, these impacts are negative ones.

Nonetheless, to address these contents, tourism institutions in Vietnam must acknowledge the importance of tourism impact education and the lack of non-economic impact education in the current curriculum ( Buzinde et al. , 2018 ; Le et al. , 2018 ). They should overtly include the socio-cultural, environmental and health-related impacts either as an independent subject or a prominent topic in an existing subject in their revised curriculum. Other countries where the economic impacts are emphasized while the non-economic impacts are neglected ( Menon et al. , 2022 ) can also refer to the case of Vietnam to better develop their tourism education programs.

Concluding remark

University students are mostly young individuals. However, when they use the actual experiences gathered via holidays and trips, they can adequately evaluate the impacts of tourism, the field they are exploring. According to the university students surveyed in this research, tourism impacts are complicated and multifaceted. Tourism educators should combine universal and contextual content in their classes to better assist these students in their future studies. Comparing the situations within and outside a country can provide a diverse perspective on tourism activities and the consequent impacts.

This research, however, could not avoid some limitations. First, it only surveyed students of one tourism faculty. Thus, the outcomes might be incomplete since they did not include the opinions of students of other tourism departments in Hanoi and other cities and provinces in Vietnam. Second, the study did not examine the differences in students’ views according to their internal and external characteristics (e.g., age, personality, tourism experience, business experience). In addition, a comparison of the opinions held by tourism students and other stakeholders (e.g., adult tourists, tourism educators, residents) was unimplemented. Further information for tourism educators, if it was needed, was not available. Third, the students’ opinions were limited to the domestic context. Their evaluations of tourism impacts were not relevant to international tourism. In other words, the contextual impacts for other destinations could not be derived from this study.

Future studies in Vietnam can expand the scale of this study to have broader and comparative insights into university students’ perceived tourism impacts. Other studies abroad may follow the design of this study to identify the contextual perceived impacts and the other facets of the perceived impacts. The outcomes of these efforts will provide essential materials for tourism educators and students in their teaching and studying, especially since contextual knowledge is critical in tourism education ( Velempini & Martin, 2019 ).

The research process

Positive impacts on the destinations

Note(s): The other impacts: NR3. Local communities may be broken; NR4. Residents’ life may be pressurized due to regulations; NR5. Affect the residents’ lifestyle and schedule; NR6. Residents’ health may be affected by diseases brought by tourists; NR8. Residents do not work in other economic sectors due to the tourism industry’s higher income; NR9. Increase conflicts among the residents due to competition; NR10. Some residents may have a low quality of life due to high living expenses; NR11. Residents may be affected by tourists’ bad attitudes; NR12. Residents may be pressured by local administration; NR15. Residents may have to buy expensive products and services; NR17. Residents and tourists may have cultural conflicts; NR21. Foreign business people and investors may take the residents’ tourism revenues

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Acknowledgements

This research was partly funded by JSPS KAKENHI, Grant Number JP20K20083.

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