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Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander, and Plate Tectonics

The study of the Earth's magnetic field as recorded in the rock record was an important key in reconstructing the history of plate motions. We have already seen how the recording of magnetic reversals led to the confirmation of the seafloor spreading hypothesis. The concept of apparent polar wander paths was helpful in determining the speed, direction, and rotation of continents.

Apparent Polar Wander

To illustrate the idea of polar wander, imagine you have a composite volcano on a continent like the one in the sketch below. I assure you that the sketch will be better understood if you also watch the screencast in which I talk while I draw it.

Apparent polar wander sketch

Click here for transcript

In order to illustrate an apparent polar wander path, let’s say we’ve got the Earth here, and it’s got its poles like so, just the way they are today. The magnetic field lines are going like that. And let’s say we’ve got a continent sitting here. It looks like this. There’s a volcano on this continent and it’s a composite volcano. A composite volcano spews out lava and it gradually builds up the mountainside with its lava flows like this. Here’s the lava coming down this side. Let’s pretend we are a geologist and we’re going to go to this volcano and we’re going to take some samples of these lava flows. We’ll zoom in on these lava flows here. The uppermost sample of the lava flow, we’ll call that this green one here. Underneath that green one there’s a more orange-yellow lava flow and then under that there’s this oldest one here. We have a magnetometer and so we can try to figure out which way all these lava flows thought north was when they formed and cooled. Let’s say that the red one points sort of in this direction and the yellowish one looks like this. The green one was formed during the field like it is today so its north is like that. There are two possible explanations for how this could have occurred. We’ll draw those right here. Explanation 1 is that the poles moved around and the continent stayed in the same place. In that case, we’ve got a continent sitting here. When the most recent lava formed, this green stuff, the pole was right up here, where it is today. But back when this volcano was making the yellow lava, the pole was in a slightly different place. It was more like over here. The oldest lava flow is recording a pole that was more like in that direction. In this case we end up with what we call an apparent polar wander path. Over time from back when to the present time the pole moved in that direction. The other possibility is that the continent moved and the pole stayed in the same place. In that case, the green continent of today would be here. When this lava froze, it was pointing north toward the north pole. Back when this yellow lava formed, if the pole was in the same place then the continent would have to have been over here somewhere like this because its lava froze pointing north, but then over time when this continent moved to its present position with the lava still frozen in place it is now pointing in a different direction that isn’t where north is anymore. If we go back even farther in time toward the red lava, then the continent must have been sitting in a position sort of like this. When its lava formed, it was pointing north, then when this continent went through this rotation, this lava was already frozen in place, so the direction it’s pointing isn’t in the same place that north is now. We can construct a path — an apparent wander path if you will — of the continent. We can see that the continent must have gone sort of like this. This is in the opposite direction of the one we constructed before.

This volcano erupts from time to time, and when its lava solidifies and cools, it records the direction of the Earth's magnetic field. A geologist armed with a magnetometer could sample down through the layers of solidified lava and thus track the direction and intensity of the field over the span of geologic time recorded by that volcano. In fact, geologists did do this, and they discovered that the direction of the north pole was not stationary over time, but instead had apparently moved around quite a bit. There were two possible explanations for this:

• Either the pole was stationary and the continent had moved over time, or
• The continent was stationary and the pole had moved over time.

Seafloor Spreading Saves the Day!

Before plate tectonics was accepted, most geologists thought that the pole must have moved. However, once more and more measurements were made on different continents, it turned out that all the different polar wander paths could not be reconciled. The pole could not be in two places at once, and furthermore, the ocean floors all recorded either north or south, but not directions in between. So how could lavas of the same age on different land masses show historic directions of the north pole differently from each other? Once seafloor spreading was recognized as a viable mechanism for moving the lithosphere, geologists realized that these "apparent polar wander paths" could be used to reconstruct the past motions of the continents, using the assumption that the pole was always in about the same place (except during reversals).

Calculating a Paleomagnetic Latitude

The example in my fabulous drawing gives a rather vague description of the idea behind using paleomagnetic data to reconstruct the former positions of the continents, but how is it actually done? We use magnetometers.

The angle between the Earth's magnetic field and horizontal is called the magnetic inclination . Because the Earth is a round body in a dipole field, the inclination is directly dependent on latitude. In fact, the tangent of the angle of inclination is equal to twice the tangent of the magnetic latitude, which is the latitude at which the permanently magnetized rock was sitting when it became magnetized. Therefore, given knowledge of your present location and a magnetometer reading of the inclination of your geologic item of interest, such as a basalt flow, you can calculate the magnetic latitude at the time of its formation, compare it to your present location, and determine how many degrees of latitude your present location has moved since that rock cooled.

Polar Wandering as Evidence of Continental Drift

Continental drift, once a theory on the fringe of the scientific community, is now a well-established phenomenon. The idea that continents move around on the surface of the Earth has been supported by overwhelming evidence from many different sources. Polar wondering as evidence of continental drift is now a widely known fact. The method of polar wandering uses magnetic data to track how the poles have shifted over time. When overlaid with maps of ancient coastlines, it’s clear that continental drift has occurred many times throughout history.

What is continental drift and how it was first proposed?

When Alfred Wegener first proposed the theory of continental drift in 1912, he did not have enough evidence to convince the scientific community. However, for the next few decades, a growing body of evidence began to support his idea. One such thing is polar wondering as evidence of continental drift.

Polar Wandering is the observed movement of the Earth’s poles over time. This phenomenon can best be explained by continental drift: as the continents move around on the planet’s surface, they drag the poles along with them. Another line of evidence comes from paleomagnetism or the study of ancient magnetic fields. Paleomagnetism has revealed that the Earth’s magnetic field has reversed itself several times throughout its history. 

If continental drift were not happening, the poles would be in the same place as they are today and the magnetic field would not have reversed. Together, these lines of evidence provide strong support for continental drift and plate tectonics.

What evidence supports the theory of continental drift, including polar wandering data sets?

Continental drift is a geological theory that suggests the continents on Earth were once one giant landmass, and over time have slowly drifted apart to create the continents we see today. There is evidence that supports this theory, including the occurrence of polar wandering.

Polar wandering occurs when the magnetic North Pole and the South Pole move away from their original positions. This can be traced back through history by studying samples of rock that form in bands, as they contain minerals with different magnetic properties.

When looking at rocks that formed hundreds of millions of years ago, scientists can determine where in the world they were found based on which way they aligned with Earth’s magnetic field at that time. By studying polar wandering data, scientists have been able to confirm continental drift theories. Hence, the scientists approved polar wondering as evidence of continental drift. 

Discuss the evidence for polar wandering:

One of the most important pieces of evidence for polar wandering is the fact that the Earth’s magnetic field has reversed itself numerous times throughout the planet’s history. These graphs show how the magnetic pole moves around different continents, and they don’t agree! This is an important finding because it means that all Earth’s landmasses were moving together over time- since there shouldn’t be any difference between them if you look at just one area (like say, Africa).

This evidence is preserved in the rocks, which show a record of the Earth’s magnetic field at the time they were formed. In addition, there are ancient maps that show the continents in different positions than they are today. For example, the Piri Reis map shows Antarctica without ice, proving that it was once located in a different position. 

Finally, certain fossils can only be found in specific regions, which suggests that those regions were once located in different locations. All of this evidence points to the fact that the Earth’s poles have wandered over time and establishing polar wondering as evidence of continental drift.

How does continental drift account for geological features on different continents (such as mountains and volcanoes)?

Polar wandering as evidence of continental drift is provided by the observation that the Earth’s poles have not always been in their present locations. Rather, they have “wandered” about over time, as indicated by the changing positions of various magnetic anomalies. The most likely explanation for this phenomenon is that the continents themselves have shifted position over time, carrying the magnetic anomalies with them.

This hypothesis is further supported by the fact that the positions of continental shorelines appear to match up quite well when the continents are reconstructional. For example, the east coast of South America appears to fit quite nicely into the west coast of Africa. Continental drift provides a plausible explanation for the observed geological features on different continents.

What are the potential implications of continental drift on human history/civilization development?

Although the concept of continental drift is now widely accepted by the scientific community, its potential implications on human history are still being explored.  The continental drift can have a significant impact on human history and civilization development. For example, when continents move apart, it can create new land masses and alter ocean currents. This can lead to changes in climate , which can impact the development of human societies. 

One theory suggests that the breakup of Pangaea played a role in the development of early civilizations. According to this theory, the isolation of landmasses allowed different cultures to develop independently, leading to the formation of distinct societies. 

The emergence of new trade routes also played a role in the spread of ideas and technologies between regions. As our understanding of continental drift continues to evolve, we may gain new insights into the origins and development of early civilizations. 

Continental drift may also have potential implications for future generations. For example, as sea levels rise , coastal regions will become increasingly vulnerable to flooding and other natural disasters. The continental drift can cause earthquakes and volcanoes. 

These natural disasters can destroy infrastructure and disrupt trade routes, potentially leading to the decline of civilizations. Thus, continental drift is a powerful force that has shaped the Earth’s landscape and human history.

Additionally, the shifting of tectonic plates could result in new mountain ranges forming, which could impact global climate patterns. As we continue to learn more about continental drift, we may be able to better prepare for these potential impacts.

How has the study of continental drift evolved, and what challenges remain in this field of research?

The theory of continental drift was first proposed in the early 20th century, and it wasn’t until the 1950s that the theory began to gain acceptance among the scientific community. The main piece of evidence supporting continental drift was the fit of the continents along their edges.

The discovery of plate tectonics in the 1960s provided a possible mechanism for continental drift, and since then the study of continental drift has progressed rapidly. However, there are still many unanswered questions, such as why some plates move faster than others, and what role mantle convection plays in plate tectonics. 

Since the early 20th century, the study of continental drift has undergone a dramatic transformation. Initially, the theory was based largely on observations of the physical features of the Earth’s surface. However, as more evidence was gathered, it became clear that there must be an underlying process responsible for the movement of continents. 

This led to the development of plate tectonics, which provided a more detailed and accurate explanation for continental drift. Today, plate tectonics is widely accepted as the most likely mechanism for continental drift.

However, there are still some unresolved issues in this field of research. For instance, the researchers lack a mechanism to explain how continents could move. Scientists are still working to determine the exact rate at which continents move.

Additionally, they are also investigating whether or not other planetary bodies, such as Mars, have experienced continental drift. Ultimately, the study of continental drift is an ongoing process, and scientists continue to make discoveries that further our understanding of this phenomenon.

Conclusion:

Continental drift is a real phenomenon that we can see evidence of all around us. It’s amazing to think about how our planet has shifted and changed over time, and it’s thanks to the dedicated efforts of scientists who have pieced together this evidence that we can understand our world in such detail. Have you seen any other compelling evidence for continental drift? Share your thoughts in the comments below!

1. What is polar wandering?

Polar wandering is the shift in the Earth’s poles from one location to another over time. The North and South Poles have not always been located where they are today. For example, during the last ice age, the Earth’s poles were located closer to the equator than they are now.

2. What is Continental Drift?

Continental drift is the scientific theory that explains how the continents have moved over time. The continents are not stationary; they move around on the Earth’s surface. Continental drift occurs when the Earth’s crust (the outermost layer of the Earth) moves. The movement of the continents is very slow, about a few centimeters per year. 

3. What is the evidence for polar wandering?

Several lines of evidence suggest that the Earth’s poles have shifted over time. One type of evidence comes from looking at the locations of ancient magnetic stripes on the ocean floor. These stripes are created by lava as it cools and solidifies. The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed many times over the millennia, and these reversals are recorded in the orientation of the magnetic stripes. The stripe pattern shows that the Earth’s poles have moved over time.

4. How does polar wandering help us understand continental drift?

The theory of continental drift proposes that the continents have moved over time. One piece of evidence for this is the fit of the continents like a jigsaw puzzle. For example, the coastlines of Africa and South America fit together perfectly. Another piece of evidence comes from looking at ancient climates. Climates change over time, and certain types of plants and animals can only live in specific climates. If the climate was different in the past, it suggests that the continents have moved to their current locations. Polar wandering is one mechanism that can cause the continents to drift.

5. What is the difference between polar wandering and plate tectonics?

Polar wandering is the shift in the Earth’s poles from one location to another over time. Plate tectonics is the movement and interaction of the Earth’s lithospheric plates. The two phenomena are related, as plate tectonics can cause the continents to drift, which in turn can cause the poles to shift.

6. What are some of the implications of polar wandering?

Polar wandering can have several implications. For example, it can cause climate change, as the shifting of the poles can affect global patterns of atmospheric and oceanic circulation. Additionally, polar wandering can impact navigation, as the Earth’s magnetic field is used to help guide compasses. Finally, polar wandering can cause disruptions to communication systems, as changes in the Earth’s magnetic field can interfere with radio waves.

7. How do we know that polar wandering has happened?

One piece of evidence for polar wandering comes from looking at fossils of animals and plants. Certain types of animals and plants can only live in specific climates. For example, penguins can only live in cold climates near the Earth’s poles. If fossils of penguins are found in areas that were once located near the equator, it suggests that the Earth’s poles have shifted over time.

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The apparent motion of the Earth's magnetic or rotational poles as revealed by palaeomagnetism and other geological techniques. Rather than a motion of the poles relative to the continents—as originally thought—it is now interpreted as a sign of continental drift, as incorporated into the modern theory of plate tectonics.

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Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander

• Reference work entry
• First Online: 01 January 2014
• Cite this reference work entry

• Jean Besse 2 ,
• Vincent Courtillot 3 &
• Marianne Greff 3  

Part of the book series: Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series ((EESS))

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1 Citations

Definition and introduction

For more than two centuries, geoscientists have suggested, based on geological field observations (reconstruction of paleoclimate belts based on fossils or certain rock types), that the past Earth’s equator (and Equatorial conditions) must have at some time been located far from its present position. In the early 1950s, paleomagnetists such as Runcorn ( 1956 ) provided quantitative evidence that the instantaneous geographic or rotation pole had moved with respect to certain continents. The paths followed by the poles in the geological past were termed “apparent” polar wander paths (APWPs), because it was not clear whether it was the pole or the continent that had moved. Since then, we have learned that oceanic and continental plates have moved with respect to each other and that a significant part of APW was actually due to these relative motions. A remaining fraction in polar wander, which would be a characteristic of “Earth as a whole” and which would not...

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Besse, J., Courtillot, V., Greff, M. (2011). Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander. In: Gupta, H.K. (eds) Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8702-7_125

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Polar Wandering and Continental Drift

This volume was an early classic during the controversial years before the general acceptance of plate tectonic theory began its rise to the forefront of global geology. The idea of continental drift was originally proposed by A L Wegener, Origin of Continents and Oceans (Braunschweig, 1922) in connection with his analysis of the origin of continents and oceans as a method to help explain anomalous distributive patterns of ancient climate zones [(Koppen-Wegener, Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit Borntraeger , Berlin 1924.)] The implications of this proposal seriously challenged many of the beliefs and theories of the constitution of the earth its physical properties tectonics and biologic developments. As a result a considerable furor of opposition arose on all counts but in particular the geophysicists alleged that drift was out of the question because the crust could not endure such forces. Others denied the need for moving the continents to explain either mountain chains or animal and plant disposition in space and time relationships. It has been attempted here to interpret the evidence in terms of two possible mechanisms a) Continental Drift and b) Polar Wandering.

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Polar Wandering and Continental Drift Author(s): Arthur C. Munyan https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.63.01 ISBN (electronic): 9781565761964 Publisher: SEPM Society for Sedimentary Geology Published: 1963

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Table of Contents

• Front Matter Open the PDF Link PDF for Front Matter in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Introduction to Polar Wandering and Continental Drift Author(s) Arthur C. Munyan Arthur C. Munyan Old Dominion College, Norfolk, Virginia Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.63.01.0000 Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for Introduction to Polar Wandering and Continental Drift in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Polar Wandering and Continental Drift: An Evaluation of Recent Evidence Author(s) Ernst R. Deutsch Ernst R. Deutsch Imperial Oil Limited, Calgary, Alberta, Canada Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.63.01.0001 Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for Polar Wandering and Continental Drift: An Evaluation of Recent Evidence in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Palaeomagnetic Methods of Investigating Polar Wandering and Continental Drift Author(s) S. K. Runcorn S. K. Runcorn Physics Department, King’s College, Newcastle upon Tyne Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.63.01.0004 Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for Palaeomagnetic Methods of Investigating Polar Wandering and Continental Drift in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Deep Focus Earthquakes in South America and their Possible Relation to Continental Drift Author(s) Horacio J. Harrington Horacio J. Harrington Tennessee Overseas Company, Division of Tenneco Oil Company, Houston, Texas Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.63.01.0047 Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for Deep Focus Earthquakes in South America and their Possible Relation to Continental Drift in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Antarctic Tectonics and Continental Drift * Author(s) Warren Hamilton Warren Hamilton U. S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.63.01.0055 Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for Antarctic Tectonics and Continental Drift^{<a href="javascript:;" reveal-id="ch05fn1" data-open="ch05fn1" class="link link-ref link-reveal xref-fn js-xref-fn split-view-modal">^*</a>} in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Polar Wandering and Climate * Author(s) Maurice Ewing ; Maurice Ewing Lamont Geological Observatory (Columbia University) Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar William L. Donn William L. Donn Lamont Geological Observatory (Columbia University) Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.63.01.0094 Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for Polar Wandering and Climate^{<a href="javascript:;" reveal-id="ch06fn1" data-open="ch06fn1" class="link link-ref link-reveal xref-fn js-xref-fn split-view-modal">^*</a>} in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Climatic Zones Throughout the Ages Author(s) George W. Bain George W. Bain Amherst College, Amherst, Massachusetts Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.63.01.0100 Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for Climatic Zones Throughout the Ages in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Precambrian Stromatolites as Indicators of Polar Shift 1 Author(s) Stephan C. Nordeng Stephan C. Nordeng Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Michigan College of Mining and Technology, Houghton, Michigan Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.63.01.0131 Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for Precambrian Stromatolites as Indicators of Polar Shift^{<a href="javascript:;" reveal-id="ch08fn1" data-open="ch08fn1" class="link link-ref link-reveal xref-fn js-xref-fn split-view-modal">¹</a>} in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Continental Drift and Distribution Patterns in the Leafy Hepaticae Author(s) Margaret Fulford Margaret Fulford University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.63.01.0140 Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for Continental Drift and Distribution Patterns in the Leafy Hepaticae in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Metastasy 1 Author(s) William Carruthers Gussow William Carruthers Gussow Union Oil Company of California, Broa, California Search for other works by this author on: GSW Google Scholar Doi: https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.63.01.0146 Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for Metastasy^{<a href="javascript:;" reveal-id="ch10fn1" data-open="ch10fn1" class="link link-ref link-reveal xref-fn js-xref-fn split-view-modal">¹</a>} in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Plates Open the PDF Link PDF for Plates in another window Add to Citation Manager
• Back Matter Open the PDF Link PDF for Back Matter in another window Add to Citation Manager
• continental drift
• paleomagnetism
• Polar wandering-continental drift
• Paleontological and mineralogical aspects

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polar wander

• geology the movement of the earth's magnetic poles with respect to the geographic poles

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polar wander noun

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What does the noun polar wander mean?

There is one meaning in OED's entry for the noun polar wander . See ‘Meaning & use’ for definition, usage, and quotation evidence.

How common is the noun polar wander ?

Where does the noun polar wander come from.

Earliest known use

The earliest known use of the noun polar wander is in the 1950s.

OED's earliest evidence for polar wander is from 1957, in Philosophical Transactions .

polar wander is formed within English, by compounding.

Etymons: polar adj. , wander n.

Nearby entries

• polaronic, adj. 1970–
• polar orbit, n. 1956–
• polar-orbiting, adj. 1958–
• polar plant, n. 1842–
• polar projection, n. 1625–
• polar reciprocal, n. 1845–
• polar star, n. 1578–
• polar surface, n. 1865–
• polar vector, n. 1903–
• polar vortex, n. 1906–
• polar wander, n. 1957–
• polar wandering, n. 1909–
• polarward, adj. & adv. 1832–
• polary, adj. 1559–1874
• polatouche, n. 1787–
• poldavy, n. 1481–
• polder, n.¹ 1602–
• polder, n.² 1704–
• polderboy, n. 1895–
• polderland, n. 1849–
• polderman, n. 1884–

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Meaning & use

Entry history for polar wander, n..

Originally published as part of the entry for polar, adj. & n.

polar wander, n. was first published in 2005.

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Citation details

Factsheet for polar wander, n., browse entry.