cultural impacts in tourism industry

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Ethics, Culture and Social Responsibility

• Global Code of Ethics for Tourism
• Accessible Tourism

Tourism and Culture

• Women’s Empowerment and Tourism

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The convergence between tourism and culture, and the increasing interest of visitors in cultural experiences, bring unique opportunities but also complex challenges for the tourism sector.

“Tourism policies and activities should be conducted with respect for the artistic, archaeological and cultural heritage, which they should protect and pass on to future generations; particular care should be devoted to preserving monuments, worship sites, archaeological and historic sites as well as upgrading museums which must be widely open and accessible to tourism visits”

UN Tourism Framework Convention on Tourism Ethics

Article 7, paragraph 2

This webpage provides UN Tourism resources aimed at strengthening the dialogue between tourism and culture and an informed decision-making in the sphere of cultural tourism. It also promotes the exchange of good practices showcasing inclusive management systems and innovative cultural tourism experiences .  

About Cultural Tourism

According to the definition adopted by the UN Tourism General Assembly, at its 22nd session (2017), Cultural Tourism implies “A type of tourism activity in which the visitor’s essential motivation is to learn, discover, experience and consume the tangible and intangible cultural attractions/products in a tourism destination. These attractions/products relate to a set of distinctive material, intellectual, spiritual and emotional features of a society that encompasses arts and architecture, historical and cultural heritage, culinary heritage, literature, music, creative industries and the living cultures with their lifestyles, value systems, beliefs and traditions”. UN Tourism provides support to its members in strengthening cultural tourism policy frameworks, strategies and product development . It also provides guidelines for the tourism sector in adopting policies and governance models that benefit all stakeholders, while promoting and preserving cultural elements.

Recommendations for Cultural Tourism Key Players on Accessibility 

UN Tourism , Fundación ONCE and UNE issued in September 2023, a set of guidelines targeting key players of the cultural tourism ecosystem, who wish to make their offerings more accessible.

The key partners in the drafting and expert review process were the ICOMOS International Cultural Tourism Committee and the European Network for Accessible Tourism (ENAT) . The ICOMOS experts’ input was key in covering crucial action areas where accessibility needs to be put in the spotlight, in order to make cultural experiences more inclusive for all people.

This guidance tool is also framed within the promotion of the ISO Standard ISO 21902 , in whose development UN Tourism had one of the leading roles.

Download here the English and Spanish version of the Recommendations.

Compendium of Good Practices in Indigenous Tourism

The report is primarily meant to showcase good practices championed by indigenous leaders and associations from the Region. However, it also includes a conceptual introduction to different aspects of planning, management and promotion of a responsible and sustainable indigenous tourism development.

The compendium also sets forward a series of recommendations targeting public administrations, as well as a list of tips promoting a responsible conduct of tourists who decide to visit indigenous communities.

For downloads, please visit the UN Tourism E-library page: Download in English - Download in Spanish .

Weaving the Recovery - Indigenous Women in Tourism

This initiative, which gathers UN Tourism , t he World Indigenous Tourism Alliance (WINTA) , Centro de las Artes Indígenas (CAI) and the NGO IMPACTO , was selected as one of the ten most promising projects amoung 850+ initiatives to address the most pressing global challenges. The project will test different methodologies in pilot communities, starting with Mexico , to enable indigenous women access markets and demonstrate their leadership in the post-COVID recovery.

This empowerment model , based on promoting a responsible tourism development, cultural transmission and fair-trade principles, will represent a novel community approach with a high global replication potential.

Visit the Weaving the Recovery - Indigenous Women in Tourism project webpage.

Inclusive Recovery of Cultural Tourism

The release of the guidelines comes within the context of the International Year of Creative Economy for Sustainable Development 2021 , a UN initiative designed to recognize how culture and creativity, including cultural tourism, can contribute to advancing the SDGs.  

UN Tourism Inclusive Recovery Guide, Issue 4: Indigenous Communities

Sustainable Development of Indigenous Tourism

The Recommendations on Sustainable Development of Indigenous Tourism provide guidance to tourism stakeholders to develop their operations in a responsible and sustainable manner within those indigenous communities that wish to:

• Open up to tourism development, or
• Improve the management of the existing tourism experiences within their communities.

They were prepared by the UN Tourism Ethics, Culture and Social Responsibility Department in close consultation with indigenous tourism associations, indigenous entrepreneurs and advocates. The Recommendations were endorsed by the World Committee on Tourism Ethics and finally adopted by the UN Tourism General Assembly in 2019, as a landmark document of the Organization in this sphere.

Who are these Recommendations targeting?

• Tour operators and travel agencies
• Tour guides
• Indigenous communities
• Other stakeholders such as governments, policy makers and destinations

The Recommendations address some of the key questions regarding indigenous tourism:

Download PDF:

• Recommendations on Sustainable Development of Indigenous Tourism
• Recomendaciones sobre el desarrollo sostenible del turismo indígena, ESP

UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conferences on Tourism and Culture

The UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conferences on Tourism and Culture bring together Ministers of Tourism and Ministers of Culture with the objective to identify key opportunities and challenges for a stronger cooperation between these highly interlinked fields. Gathering tourism and culture stakeholders from all world regions the conferences which have been hosted by Cambodia, Oman, Türkiye and Japan have addressed a wide range of topics, including governance models, the promotion, protection and safeguarding of culture, innovation, the role of creative industries and urban regeneration as a vehicle for sustainable development in destinations worldwide.

Fourth UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conference on Tourism and Culture: Investing in future generations. Kyoto, Japan. 12-13 December 2019 Kyoto Declaration on Tourism and Culture: Investing in future generations ( English, French, Spanish, Arabic, Russian and Japanese )

Third UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conference on Tourism and Culture : For the Benefit of All. Istanbul, Türkiye. 3 -5 December 2018 Istanbul Declaration on Tourism and Culture: For the Benefit of All ( English , French , Spanish , Arabic , Russian )

Second UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conference’s on Tourism and Culture: Fostering Sustainable Development. Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. 11-12 December 2017 Muscat Declaration on Tourism and Culture: Fostering Sustainable Development ( English , French , Spanish , Arabic , Russian )

First UN Tourism/UNESCO World Conference’s on Tourism and Culture: Building a new partnership. Siem Reap, Cambodia. 4-6 February 2015 Siem Reap Declaration on Tourism and Culture – Building a New Partnership Model ( English )

UN Tourism Study on Tourism and Intangible Cultural Heritage  

The first UN Tourism Study on Tourism and Intangible Cultural Heritage provides comprehensive baseline research on the interlinkages between tourism and the expressions and skills that make up humanity’s intangible cultural heritage (ICH). 

Through a compendium of case studies drawn from across five continents, the report offers in-depth information on, and analysis of, government-led actions, public-private partnerships and community initiatives.

These practical examples feature tourism development projects related to six pivotal areas of ICH: handicrafts and the visual arts; gastronomy; social practices, rituals and festive events; music and the performing arts; oral traditions and expressions; and, knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe.

Highlighting innovative forms of policy-making, the UN Tourism Study on Tourism and Intangible Cultural Heritage recommends specific actions for stakeholders to foster the sustainable and responsible development of tourism by incorporating and safeguarding intangible cultural assets.

UN Tourism Study on Tourism and Intangible Cultural Heritage

• UN Tourism Study
• Summary of the Study

Studies and research on tourism and culture commissioned by UN Tourism

• Tourism and Culture Synergies, 2018
• UN Tourism Study on Tourism and Intangible Cultural Heritage, 2012
• Big Data in Cultural Tourism – Building Sustainability and Enhancing Competitiveness (e-unwto.org)

Outcomes from the UN Tourism Affiliate Members World Expert Meeting on Cultural Tourism, Madrid, Spain, 1–2 December 2022

UN Tourism and the Region of Madrid – through the Regional Ministry of Culture, Tourism, and Sports – held the World Expert Meeting on Cultural Tourism in Madrid on 1 and 2 December 2022. The initiative reflects the alliance and common commitment of the two partners to further explore the bond between tourism and culture. This publication is the result of the collaboration and discussion between the experts at the meeting, and subsequent contributions.

Relevant Links

• 3RD UN Tourism/UNESCO WORLD CONFERENCE ON TOURISM AND CULTURE ‘FOR THE BENEFIT OF ALL’

Photo credit of the Summary's cover page:  www.banglanatak.com

• Hospitality Industry

Sustainability in Tourism: The socio-cultural lens

November 27, 2020 •

8 min reading

In October 2020, EHL hosted its annual Sustainability Week with a vast array of online seminars, activities and discussion panels. Considering the current impact on the hospitality industry of ongoing COVID-19, the theme of sustainable tourism is more than ever a relevant and urgent topic. Under the direction of Joshua Gan (EHL regional director Asia-Pacific), the issues concerning the socio-cultural aspect of sustainable tourism – its meaning and implementation - were thoughtfully turned over by the two guest speakers: Dr. Peter Varga (Assistant Prof in Sustainability) and Mark Edleson (CEO of Alila Hotels & Resorts).

The definition of Sustainability

According to the Environmental Protection Agency:

Sustainability creates and maintains the conditions under which humans and nature can exist in productive harmony that permit fulfilling the social, economic, and other requirements of present and future generations.

The analysis of sustainability is often divided into three main perspectives: social, economic and environmental, (also known as “people, profit and planet”). When talking about the social/people aspect, one could argue that an additional perspective needs to be taken into account - that of culture.

1. What is meant by “the socio-cultural aspect of sustainability”?

PV: The term refers to, among others, how the local community of a tourism destination is affected by the tourism industry. Hitherto, local cultural frameworks have often been neglected by the mass tourism industry. The perspectives of the tourism hosts should be taken into consideration in a more sustainable way, particularly in the developing world.

Much is normally erased for the sake of modern beach culture, bars, shopping malls, fast entertainment and consumerism. Little attention has been paid to erecting quality, authentic and culturally-rich experiences that benefit both host and visitors. As a result, the majority of todays’ tourism destinations are unsustainable due to various factors such as too fast development and lack of consideration of sustainable parameters, such as the environment and local communities. If tourism is to change and become more sustainable, the aspect of culture must be taken into account.

When we speak of culture in tourism it refers to both host and guest cultures. The goal is to create a harmonious sociocultural environment where long-term sustainable relationships are maintained among all the tourism stakeholders. This may seem excessively idealistic, nevertheless it is worth to try, at least to try and reflect on it in tourism development projects.

ME: Paying attention to the environment is now more pressing than ever. Despite the many labor and environmental regulations, few are actually adhered to. Tourism operators need to understand that sustainable tourism means more than just preserving the beautiful landscape of a tourist destination. It means, for example, respecting village mentality, places of worship, agricultural sites, all that is essential to the upkeep of local cultural identity. Operators have to ask themselves if what they are developing will be beneficial or harmful to the locals. Are they looking to promote mass tourism or quality tourism?

Mass tourism leads to land grabbing, wider roads, more transportation, traffic, pollution – many by-products that initially appear to be generating employment and returns, but that are damaging and simply not sustainable in the long run. The question today is: How to preserve the cultural fabric of a tourist destination?

2. Can you give examples of destinations that have remained socio-culturally intact?

ME: The Alila brand has based itself on a sustainable model from its inception and has tried to preserve as much of the original fabric of local life, culture and nature as possible. We use eco- designed constructions made out of local materials. We incorporate many sustainable initiatives, e.g. local water bottled in reusable glass jars, bamboo straws, organic gardens in the hotels’ compound, compost used from hotel waste, a ‘giving bag’ in each room where guests can leave anything they don’t want to take home, beach cleaning initiatives for staff and guests.

Image credits: Alila Hotels

We try to involve the locals in tourist activities where they are the beneficiaries and that naturally enhance the cultural vocabulary. A very successful initiative has been for local families to open up their homes to host dining experiences for visitors, thereby helping the village integrate the tourists and teach them about the local food and customs. This is precious, authentic interaction for the guests, as well as a means of showing respect to the villagers and developing ties with them. Reaching out respectfully to the community is an crucial step on the road to sustainable tourism.

PV: Some communities have kept their cultural rituals and turned them into interesting tourism features, which is an example of the revitalization of culture. For example, in South Africa, the Zulu dance has become a key tourist attraction, and subsequently, a commodity. Similarly, in other indigenous societies such as in the Amazon rainforest, the shamanistic presentations have become a commodity expected by tourists.

The positive outcome of this cultural ‘commodification’ is its economic benefits for the hosts and also the fact that locals keep the tradition alive. Other less appealing cultural elements for the guest will eventually be lost. Hence, the host culture is expected to adapt to tourism – but this is a fragile set up, because what if the tourism flow suddenly stops, as during this current COVID-19 pandemic? Local societies should not become too dependent on tourism, because it makes them economically fragile in front of unexpected global calamities.

A good example are the Guna people on the Caribbean side of Panama, who have intentionally made their precious small archipelagos an exclusive destination where leakage stays low, so economic benefits stay within their reach.

« The Guna are also one of the rare indigenous groups who seem to be striking a balance between their traditional ways of life and modern conventions. Since 1996, the business of tourism has rested solely in their hands, following a history of showdowns with investors who had seized lands and built luxury hotels and cabins without the blessing of the Guna General Congress. Today, the “Ley Fundamental Guna,” bans the sale or rent of Guna lands to outsiders, including Panamanians, as well as non-Guna investments in their territory. »   - Mashable Media

Guana Yala Island (Image Credits: Go2Sanblas )

3. What’s the role of governments and stakeholders?

PV: Tourism has often been treated as a thriving industry by governments, especially in developing nations. However, as mentioned above, the local stakeholders are rarely taken into account, unlike the external ones (banks, developers, expatriate management, etc.) who tend to control everything. It can almost be seen as a form of neo-colonization, where the external stakeholders impose a specific type of development on the destination.

The economic return on mass tourism is considerable, but little attention is paid to the stress this causes to the local people and their culture. Some communities are very fragile in the face of mass tourism, it impacts their quality of life on a daily bases, both on tangible and intangible levels. Mass tourism may allow locals to buy mobile phones while they do not have indoor plumbing at home. Such odd ‘developments’ may generate a very unequal sociocultural environment in the destination. Even in developed countries, (take Venice for example), mass tourism had got so out of hand that the COVID lockdown was seen in many ways as a ‘blessing’ for the environment and many of the locals. There are some archeological sites, such as Angkor Wat in Cambodia to name just one among many, that risks destroying its own ‘raison d’être’ due to the uncontrolled over-tourism phenomenon.

Overtourism problem at Angkor Wat (Image Credits: Good-Travel )

ME: Governments tend to go for numbers, especially in developing countries. They are influenced by a business model that runs on economic drive and targets to be reached. Tourism is seen as an ‘export’. Tourism Officers are elected and their job is to see visitor numbers increase, which in turn causes stress to the local culture. DMCc (Destination Management Companies) have a vested interest in big groups of tourists because they stand to make a profit from tourists visiting certain shops and restaurants. In mass tourism, there’s a big circle of players all looking for their cut.

In the Bali village where I live, local teens are now going to tourism school whereas before they were going to an agriculture college. This was originally an agrarian society based on a farming economy. Land is now being sold to tourism not to farming. Tourism on this island means that some ties have been strengthened, others weakened. In order to strike a more balanced outcome, tourism must be more controlled in the future, even if that means making it more expensive.

4. How can tourists and governments change their mindset?

PV: Tourists need to start thinking about why they are traveling. There is something deeply wrong with the “why not?” mentality fueled by cheap air fares resulting in a few, fast days spent here and there. Travel has to become more purposeful. The idea of slow travel where the objective is to explore and immerse oneself in a new culture over a few weeks should be promoted. Travelers must change their expectations and mindset: show more care about their destination, do better research on simple local cultural specificities such as tipping, dress code, being respectful of the local culture, how to chat with locals, etc. We should do our best to avoid slipping back to pre-COVID times, and reflect on how to make tourism more sustainable.

ME: Ironically, COVID-19 has caused some necessary slowing down, with a refreshing new focus on domestic tourism. On one hand, the pandemic has helped de-emphasize material things, but on the other it has accelerated the craving for experiences. Hence, I am fearful that there will be a return to mass tourism once these restrictive times are over. Much will depend on whether the low-cost carriers are still in business or not. But essentially, it’s up to us, the travelers, to carry out more research into our destination and travel with a greater sense of purpose.

PV: As a brief conclusion of this panel, the future of tourism depends on how much attention we pay to sustainable aspects. The current pandemic has not only revealed a fragile tourism industry, but it’s also shown how stakeholders and destinations are suffering from a situation that, as yet, has no definitive end point. A more sustainable planning mindset, in all aspects of the tourism and travel sector, would enable us to prepare for an uncertain, but hopefully more responsible future.

"Contributing beyond education encourages the EHL community to give back to society by driving sustainable change wherever they live and work, both during and after their education. This is a strong call to action that should empower each of us to do more and play our part in making the world a fair, ethical and sustainable place". - Michel Rochat (CEO, EHL Group)

EHL Insights content editor

Assistant Professor at EHL

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The role of culture as a determinant of tourism demand: evidence from European cities

International Journal of Tourism Cities

ISSN : 2056-5607

Article publication date: 22 April 2022

Issue publication date: 16 March 2023

The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of various cultural amenities on tourism demand in 168 European cities.

Design/methodology/approach

Using data from the European Commission’s Culture and Creative Cities Monitor 2017, a series of regressions are estimated to examine the impact of various cultural amenities on tourism demand while also controlling for other factors that may impact on tourism demand. Diagnostic tests are also conducted to check the robustness of the results.

The results reveal that cultural amenities in the form of sights, landmarks, museums, concerts and shows have a positive impact on tourism demand. By pinpointing the cultural amenities that are important for increasing tourism demand, the findings aid stakeholders in the tourism industry as they develop post-pandemic recovery plans.

Originality/value

This paper identifies two key aspects of the cultural tourism literature that require deeper investigation and aims to address these aspects. Firstly, while many studies focus on a specific or narrow range of cultural amenities, this study includes a series of measures to capture a range of cultural amenities. Secondly, while many studies are narrow in geographical scope, this paper includes data on 168 European cities across 30 countries.

• European cities

Noonan, L. (2023), "The role of culture as a determinant of tourism demand: evidence from European cities", International Journal of Tourism Cities , Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 13-34. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJTC-07-2021-0154

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2022, Lisa Noonan

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of culture on tourism demand in 168 European cities. City tourism has been cited as one of the fastest growing travel segments globally ( Bock, 2015 ; Postma et al. , 2017 ). In many European countries, city tourism is a major contributor to the country’s overall tourism gross domestic product (GDP). In 2016, for example, 60.3% of direct tourism GDP in Czech Republic was generated in Prague; in Ireland, 59.1% was generated in Dublin, and Brussels accounted for 52.6% of direct tourism GDP in Belgium ( World Travel and Tourism Council, 2017 ).

Cities are attractive destinations for various segments of the tourist market ( Smolčić Jurdana and Sušilović, 2006 ). Young people are attracted to the nightlife and entertainment as well as sporting events held in the city. Older and more educated tourists are attracted to the cultural heritage of the city ( Smolčić Jurdana and Sušilović, 2006 ). The options available to travellers in a city surpass those of other destination types due to the density of cultural offerings available ( Bock, 2015 ).

The role of culture in attracting tourists to cities has not been overlooked by the tourism industry. Since the 1980s, many destinations have focussed on cultural tourism as a source of economic development ( OECD, 2009 ). This is particularly true in the case of European cities. European cities are increasingly targeting tourism as a key sector for local development and are investing in cultural attractions and infrastructure to secure a niche position in the tourist market ( Russo and van der Borg, 2002 ). In some cities that have experienced deindustrialisation, old manufacturing spaces have been designated for cultural or tourist activities ( Alvarez, 2010 ). In Bilbao, for example, the building of the Guggenheim Museum marked the beginning of the regeneration of the city and many old industrial sites were converted into parks and cultural spaces ( Alvarez, 2010 ). According to Richards (1996a ), the European cultural tourism market is becoming progressively more competitive with an increasing number of European Union cities and regions developing their tourism strategies around cultural heritage. The opening up of Central and Eastern Europe has also led to the development of “new” cultural tourism destinations ( Richards, 1996a , p. 4).

The contribution of culture to tourism has received extensive consideration in the academic literature. There are, however, two notable shortcomings in the literature. Firstly, the range of cultural amenities considered in the literature is limited. Many studies focus on a narrow range of cultural amenities with many of the cultural amenities listed by the UNWTO (2019) being overlooked. Secondly, studies are narrow in geographical scope, with many studies focusing on a specific location or multiple locations within a specific country. Location-specific case studies are useful as they allow for in-depth analyses on the contribution of culture to tourism demand. However, difficulties may arise when making generalisations from the findings of such site-specific analyses ( Chen and Rahman, 2018 ). Cross-sectional analyses, which incorporate a range of cultural amenities and geographic locations, would provide a more detailed insight into how culture impacts on tourism demand.

This paper contributes to the literature by examining the impact of different cultural amenities on tourism demand across 168 European cities. Using data from The Cultural and Creative Cities Monitor, published by the European Commission (2017) , a series of regressions is estimated. Using the various measures, it is possible to pinpoint the exact cultural amenities that affect tourism demand.

The concept of cultural tourism is explained and a review of the literature is presented in Section 2. The data are presented in Section 3. The method of analysis is outlined in Section 4. The results are presented in Section 5. Finally, discussion and conclusions are presented in Section 6.

2. Aspects of cultural tourism literature

This section begins by defining cultural tourism. Two notable features of existing literature in the field are identified and discussed in subsections 2.2 and 2.3.

2.1 Defining cultural tourism

The term “cultural tourism” is frequently used in conceptual models that include culture as a key determinant of tourism competitiveness, for example, Crouch and Ritchie’s (1999) model of destination competitiveness and the integrated model of destination competitiveness ( Dwyer et al. , 2004 ). However, how best to define cultural tourism has been the subject of much debate ( Richards 1996b ; Richards, 2018 ). Various definitions can be found in the literature; see for example, Silberberg (1995) , Richards (1996b ), Richards (2000) . One of the most comprehensive definitions is provided by World Tourism Organization (UNWTO):

Cultural tourism is a type of tourism activity in which the visitor’s essential motivation is to learn, discover, experience and consume the tangible and intangible cultural attractions/products in a tourism destination. These attractions/products relate to a set of distinctive material, intellectual, spiritual and emotional features of a society that encompasses arts and architecture, historical and cultural heritage, culinary heritage, literature, music, creative industries and the living cultures with their lifestyles, value systems, beliefs and traditions ( UNWTO, 2019 , p. 30)

In discussing an earlier publication of the definition above, Richards (2018 , p. 13) contends that it “confirms the much broader nature of contemporary cultural tourism, which relates not just to sites and monuments, but to ways of life, creativity and ‘everyday culture’”. A broad definition is important as opinions on what constitutes culture tend to vary among stakeholders. For example, in a survey of member states, The World Tourism Organisation (2018) asked countries what aspects they included in cultural tourism. Total, 97% of respondents included aspects of tangible heritage such as heritage sights and monuments. Total, 98% included intangible heritage such as traditional festivals, music and gastronomy. Total, 82% included other contemporary cultures and creative industries including film, performing arts and fashion ( World Tourism Organisation, 2018 ). As such, empirical analyses should consider a multitude of cultural offerings when assessing the impact of culture on tourism demand.

Many of the cultural amenities listed in the UNWTO (2019) definition have been overlooked in the literature. Specifically, many studies focus on one or a small number of cultural amenities in their analyses. They also tend to focus on a specific country or subdivisions of a country. These two features of the literature are discussed in the next sections.

2.2 Studies tend to focus on specific cultural amenities

Many studies on cultural tourism tend to focus on a specific cultural amenity or a narrow range of amenities. Museums receive much attention. The interest in museums is unsurprising given that they can offer an insight into a specific location and time and as such, may be unique to the destination ( Stylianou-Lambert, 2011 ). Many types of museums are considered including state ( Cellini and Cuccia, 2013 ) and capital-city museums ( Carey et al. , 2013 ) as well as museums operating in more niche areas, such as art museums ( Stylianou-Lambert, 2011 ), transport museums ( Xie, 2006 ; Akbulut and Artvinli, 2011 ) and Holocaust museums ( Miles, 2002 ; Cohen, 2011 ). Their impact on tourism is mixed. Some studies reveal that museums have a positive effect on tourism demand Plaza (2000) , Carey et al. (2013) . The presence of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao appears to be particularly important for tourism. Visitors to the museum accounted for 58% of tourism growth in the Basque Country between 1997 and 1999 ( Plaza, 2000 ). By contrast, Cellini and Cuccia (2013) find evidence of bi-directional causality between attendance at museums and monuments and tourism flows in Italy in the long run.

While museums receive considerable attention, Cellini and Cuccia (2013) contend that focussing solely on museums and monuments is too strict as a measure of culture. Various other cultural amenities are also considered from a tourism perspective. For example, Di Lascio et al. (2011) find that modern art exhibitions have a positive one-year lagged effect on tourism. Contemporary art exhibitions also have a positive impact on tourism flows when the organisation of such exhibitions is continuous over time ( Di Lascio et al. , 2011 ). The importance of culinary heritage as a cultural tourism product is also evident in the literature. Du Rand et al. (2003) find that food plays a role in tourism in South Africa. Likewise, local gastronomy is considered a tourist attraction in Quito ( Pérez Gálvez et al. , 2017 ). Visitors to Córdoba want to taste the local cuisine as well as enjoying the historic and cultural heritage ( Beltrán et al. , 2016 ).

UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS) also receive considerable attention, for example, Cuccia et al. , 2016 ; Yang et al. , 2019 ; Canale et al. , 2019 ; Castillo-Manzano et al. , 2021 . However, even within the same country, their impact on tourism appears to be mixed. In Spain, cultural WHS have a positive impact on tourism numbers in inland provinces while only natural WHS have a positive impact on tourism numbers in coastal regions ( Castillo-Manzano et al. , 2021 ). The presence of WHS is negatively correlated with the technical efficiency of tourism destinations in Italian regions ( Cuccia et al. , 2016 ). However, in Italian provinces, the number of WHS increases international tourist arrivals by 6.9% ( Canale et al. , 2019 ).

While detailed studies on specific cultural amenities offer interesting insights, Cellini and Cuccia (2013) believe that different types of cultural amenities may have different relationships with tourism flows and recommend research into the same ( Cellini and Cuccia, 2013 ). Guccio et al. (2017) contribute to the literature by including a range of measures of culture in their study which examines the effects of cultural participation on the performance of tourism destinations. The amenities considered include theatres, cinemas, museums, sports and music events, discotheques and archaeological sites. They find that cultural friendly environments positively affect the performance of tourism destinations ( Guccio et al. , 2017 ). Their paper focuses solely on Italian regions.

Cultural amenities have a positive and significant impact on tourism demand.

The next section discusses this paper’s second key observation.

2.3 Studies tend to be narrow in geographical scope

The narrow geographical scope of many studies is a notable feature of the literature. There are many examples of studies that focus on a specific cultural amenity and tend to be location specific. For example, Mi’kmaw culture in Nova Scotia ( Lynch et al. , 2010 ), language tourism in Valladolid ( Redondo-Carretero et al. , 2017 ), communist heritage tourism in Bucharest ( Sima, 2017 ) and the development of cultural heritage in Gozo ( Borg, 2017 ).

Detailed case studies on specific locations are useful as they allow for in-depth analyses on the contribution of culture to tourism demand. They also aid policymakers and the stakeholders in the tourism industry when tailoring policies and initiatives specific to the location in question. However, difficulties may arise when making generalisations from the findings of such sight-specific analyses ( Chen and Rahman, 2018 ). For example, Cellini and Cuccia (2013 , p. 3481) contend that their findings for Italy should be tested in other countries as the management of Italian cultural sights is “less flexible and less market-oriented” relative to other countries, and as such, the management style may influence the findings. As such, cross-sectional analyses, which incorporate a range of geographic locations, would provide a more detailed insight into how cultural amenities impact on tourism demand.

There are, of course, studies that consider a cross-section of locations. Many of these focus on regions or provinces within a specific country, for example, Di Lascio et al. (2011) , Cuccia et al. (2016) , Guccio et al. (2017) , Canale et al. (2019) , Castillo-Manzano et al. (2021) . However, there tends to be considerably less literature that focuses on regions or cities across countries. This study contributes to the literature by empirically estimating the impact of different cultural amenities on tourism demand in 168 European cities spanning 30 European countries. The data used are discussed in the next section.

3. Data to be analysed

Data are from The Culture and Creative Cities Monitor 2017, which was carried out by the European Commission. The Cultural and Creative Cities Monitor is a tool to assess and monitor the performance of cultural and creative cities in Europe relative to their counterparts using quantitative and qualitative data ( European Union, 2017 ). The monitor moves away from the narrow economic perspective of culture by including a diverse range of indicators ( Montalto et al. , 2019 ). See Montalto et al. (2019) for a detailed discussion of data collection, treatment and the construction of the overall index.

In deciding what cities to include in the monitor, different criteria were considered, see Montalto et al. (2019) . In the final sample, data are available for 168 European cities covering 30 European countries. See Appendix 1 for list of cities included. To be included in the monitor, the cities had to meet one of the following three criteria. Firstly, they have been or will be a European Capital of Culture up until 2019 or have been shortlisted to become a European Capital of Culture up until the year 2021. Of the 168 cities included, 93 cities meet this criterion ( European Union, 2018a ). Secondly, the city is a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Creative city. A further 22 cities meet this criterion ( European Union, 2018a ). Thirdly, the city hosts at least two regular international cultural festivals up until, at least, 2015. A further 53 cities meet this criterion ( European Union, 2018a ).

Initially, almost 200 indicators were considered for inclusion in The Cultural and Creative Cities Monitor based on a literature review and expert consultation. After the data was screened and tested for statistical coherence, 29 indicators were selected ( European Union, 2018b ). Data are available for 29 indicators which are relevant to the cultural vibrancy, creative economy and enabling environment of the cities ( European Union, 2017 ). Most of the indicators are denominated in per capita terms to enable cross-city comparison ( European Union, 2018a ); see Table 1 . If the distribution of a variable deviated significantly from the normal distribution, winsorisation was used to trim the outliers ( European Union, 2018a ). Missing observations were imputed when constructing the monitor. See European Union (2018a ) for full details of data imputation techniques. Both the imputed and actual observations are included in the regression analysis as to remove the imputed observations would greatly reduce the degrees of freedom available. The data are scaled from 0 to 100. As such, for each of the variables, 0 represents the lowest performance in the data set and 100 represents the highest performance in the data set ( European Union, 2018a ). See Appendix 2 for an interpretation of the scale used. Table 1 presents the variables included in the analysis. The reference period is also included for each of the variables. While the reference periods vary for each of the variables, this should not be a problem as the variables have been used collectively as inputs in The Culture and Creative Cities Monitor 2017 to form the overall aggregate C3 index. European Union (2018b , p. 2) state that the variables included in the index “were selected with respect to statistical coherence, country coverage and timeliness”. In fact, it is not uncommon in econometric analysis to include variables from different reference periods; see, for example, Kim et al. (2000) , Alkay and Hewings (2012) , Noonan et al. (2021) .

The dependent variable is Tourist overnight stays ; see Table 1 . This is a measure of tourism demand. While measures of tourist expenditure and tourist arrivals are most commonly used to measure tourism demand ( Song et al. , 2010 ), measures based on overnight stays also exist in the literature, for example, Garín-Muñoz and Amaral (2000) , Falk (2010 , 2013 ), Falk and Lin (2018) . Tourist overnight stays is selected in this analysis for two reasons. Firstly, data on tourist expenditure are normally collected through visitor surveys and are often subject to biases due to the method of data collection ( Song et al. , 2010 ). Secondly, data on the number of overnight stays is useful as it captures the duration of the stay. This cannot be gauged by looking at the number of tourist arrivals. Garín-Muñoz (2009) uses data on the number of overnight stays rather than the number of visitors to measure tourism demand in Galicia for this particular reason. Furthermore, Song et al. (2010) claim that the volume of tourist arrivals does not account for the economic impact of the tourists.

The primary purpose of this analysis is to examine the impact of culture on tourism demand. Therefore, five measures of culture are included to capture various cultural amenities; see Table 1 . Following the World Tourism Organisation (2018) , tangible cultural amenities are captured in the variables sights and landmarks and museums . Intangible cultural amenities are captured by concerts and shows . Cinema seats and theatres capture aspects of other contemporary cultures and creative industries. While this is not an exhaustive list of all aspects of culture, it is the broadest range of measures available for all 168 cities in the year being studied. As the aforementioned measures are volume based, Satisfaction with cultural facilities is also included to account for the opinions of the population in relation to cultural facilities. This measures the percentage of the population that is very satisfied with the cultural facilities in the city.

Following Canale et al. (2019) , a series of control variables are also included. This is standard in regression analysis. These variables control for other factors that may also impact on tourism demand in European cities. While many interesting variables are included in the Cultural and Creative Cities Monitor, the number of controls variables that can be included is constrained by the low number of degrees of freedom in the model. As such, it is important that those included are carefully selected based on theoretical considerations and existing empirical studies.

Van den Berg et al. (1995) propose a model that focuses specifically on the attractiveness of urban locations for tourism. Accessibility features heavily in their model. Three measures of transport are included to capture air ( passenger flights ), rail ( direct trains to other cities ) and road (potential road accessibility) accessibility. Measures of air accessibility are common in the literature; for example, Cho (2010) , Di Lascio et al. (2011) , Canale et al. (2019) . As this is a city-level study, measures of rail and road accessibility are also included. It is possible that tourists to the city may be domestic tourists who travel via the road or rail network or international tourists who make a rail connection to the city after arriving in the country and/or use the road network to visit multiple destinations during their visit.

Image is also a feature of the Van den Berg et al. (1995) model. Van den Berg et al. (1995) claim that the city must have an appealing image to attract tourists. They do, however, acknowledge that it is difficult to assess the extent to which image impacts on tourist’s destination choice ( Van den Berg et al. , 1995 ). This may be linked to the difficulty in finding a quantitative proxy to capture image. To proxy for this, two variables are included in this analysis: Tolerance of foreigners and Quality of Governance . They were chosen on the premise that a tolerant city with an educated population, with good health care and a high standard of law enforcement may be viewed as a “safe” destination choice by tourists. This reflects Tang (2018) who contends that a high quality of governance may signal a high level of security thus increasing inbound tourism demand. Canale et al. (2019) also control for crime and health care.

As well as being centres of culture and entertainment, cities are also centres of economic and political power ( Ashworth and Page, 2011 ). As many visitors travel to cities for the latter, it is possible that cities with modest cultural capital can attract as many travellers as those cities with greater cultural capital ( Ashworth and Page, 2011 ). To control for this a capital city dummy variable is included as many European capital cities are the major economic and political powerhouses in their respective countries.

A series of dummy variables are also included to control for the level of GDP per capita and population in the city. GDP per capita is a proxy for income. Various GDP-based measures are used as proxies of income in the literature; see, for example Lim (1997) , Yang and Wong (2012) , Marrocu and Paci (2013) , Leitão (2010) , Dogru et al. (2017) .. The GDP per capita and population groups are taken directly from the Cultural and Creative Cities Monitor. For GDP per capita, data are not available at the city level but at the metro-region and NUTS 3 regional levels. Metro-regional level data was used where available ( European Commission, 2017 ).

A series of population dummy variables are included to control for differences in city size. See Law (1992) for a detailed discussion on the attractiveness of large cities for tourism.

Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 2 . The highest and lowest observations are presented in Table 3 . There is a broad geographical distribution in terms of the top and bottom performing cities for Tourist Overnight Stays . The highest values for the variable are in Budapest (Hungary), Karlovy Vary (Czech Republic) and York (UK). With scores of 100, the three cities are performing strongly relative to the mean score of 20.05. Tourist overnight stays are lowest in Zaragoza (Spain), Baia Mare (Romania), Lublin (Poland) and Osijek (Croatia).

Italian and Irish cities are among the top performers in terms of culture. Venice (Italy) is the top-ranking city for both sights and landmarks and museums , receiving the maximum score of 100 for both measures. The values of 100 are substantially higher that the European city means of 23.45 and 23.51 for the variables. Limerick (Ireland) has the third highest score behind other Italian cites Matera ( sights and landmarks ) and Florence ( museums ) for both variables. For concerts and shows , the top performing three cities are all Irish. Italian and Irish cities, however, are not represented in the top three cities for cinema seats and theatres .

In terms of the weakest scores for culture, Lódź (Poland) is in the bottom three cities for both sights and landmarks and concerts and shows . Patras (Greece) is among the weakest performers for both sights and landmarks and museums . Two German cities, Mannheim and Essen feature in the bottom three cities for Theatres . The populations of Lyon and Vienna express the greatest satisfaction with cultural facilities ( satisfaction with cultural facilities) .

The mean score for passenger flights is 17.58 with a standard deviation of 20.43. Seven cities are tied on a score of zero. Amongst the poorest ranking cities are Baia Mare, Lublin and Osijek which are also amongst the lowest ranking cities in terms of tourist overnight stays . London is the top-ranking city with a score of 100. It is followed by two Dutch cities; Eindhoven (89.3) and 's-Hertogenbosch (87.3) in second are third place respectively. Dutch cities are also performing well in terms of rail accessibility; Leiden and 's-Hertogenbosch are in the top three cities for the variable direct trains to other cities . Twelve cities are tied at the lowest score of zero. The top three performers in terms of potential road accessibility are all German cities; Cologne, Essen and Bochum. Eight cities are tied at a score of zero.

Tolerance of foreigners has a mean score of 41.47 and a standard deviation of 24.29. Cluj-Napoca scores highest and as such, is deemed the most tolerant. The least tolerant are dominated by the Greek cities of Kalamata, Patras, Athens and Thessaloniki. Along with Turin, they all achieve a score of zero. The mean score for quality of governance is 64. The top-ranking cities are all Scandinavian cities. Each of the top four display scores greatly in excess of the mean. However, the poorest performing cities, Sofia (Bulgaria), Naples (Italy) and Bucharest (Romania) score very poorly relative to the mean with scores of 0, 8.2 and 8.5.

Of the sample, 17.86% comprises capital cities. There is a spread between each of the GDP per capita and population categories. The next section outlines the method of analysis.

4. Method of analysis

To conduct the analysis, equation (1) is estimated using an ordinary least squares (OLS) estimator. OLS is a commonly used regression technique that minimises the sum of the squared residuals in calculating the estimated regression coefficients ( Studenmund, 2001 ): (Equation 1) D i = β 0 + β 1 C i + β 2 Z i + ε i

D i measures tourism demand in city i as measured by tourist overnight stays . C i is a matrix of variables that measure culture in city i. Z i represents a series of control variables which include other factors that affect tourism demand in city i . Variables are discussed in Section 3. All continuous variables are in natural logs.

It is expected that the coefficients for β 1 and β 2 will be positive.

Prior to conducting the econometric analysis, a value of +1 is added to each of the continuous variables to allow natural logs of each variable to be taken. A series of diagnostic tests are also conducted. Firstly, the Shapiro–Wilk test is estimated to determine if the variables are normally distributed. The null hypothesis is the variables are normally distributed. The results of the test are presented in Appendix 3 . The results reveal that the dependent variable, tourist overnight stays and the independent variables sights and landmarks , museums and concerts and shows are normally distributed, while the other continuous variables are not. As the assumption of normality is not a requirement for OLS estimation ( Studenmund, 2001 ), this should not cause any serious issues.

Tests are also conducted post-estimation for heteroscedasticity. Heteroscedasticity violates the assumption of constant variance for observations of the error term ( Studenmund, 2001 , p. 345). Two tests are conducted to check for the presence of heteroscedasticity. Firstly, a Breusch–Pagan/Cook–Weisberg test is conducted post-OLS estimation. The null hypothesis is constant variance. If the null hypothesis is rejected heteroscedasticity is present within the model. Secondly, White’s test is conducted. The null hypothesis is homoscedasticity. If the null hypothesis is rejected heteroscedasticity is present within the model. Although, heteroscedasticity violates the assumption of constant variance, OLS estimators remain unbiased in its presence Studenmund (2001) , Gujarati and Porter (2009) . As such, it is not as serious a concern in this analysis as multicollinearity.

Multicollinearity describes the occurrence of a perfect linear relationship among some or all of the independent variables, as well as the situation whereby the independent variables are intercorrelated ( Gujarati and Porter, 2009 , p. 323). OLS estimators will have large variances and covariances in the presence of multicollinearity which can make precise estimation difficult. The confidence levels also tend to be wider in the presence of multicollinearity leading to a greater acceptance of the zero-null hypothesis ( Gujarati and Porter, 2009 , p. 327). Variance-inflating factor (VIF) tests are conducted post regression as a check for multicollinearity. The VIF displays the speed with which variances and covariance increase and shows how the variance of an estimator can be inflated by multicollinearity ( Gujarati and Porter, 2009 , p. 328). Generally, if the VIF of a variable is greater than 10 it said to be highly collinear ( Gujarati and Porter, 2009 ; Kennedy, 2008 ).

Given that there are six measures of culture, three measures of transport and two measures relating to the institutions of cities, it is expected that some of these variables will be correlated with each other. While the VIF tests provide the primary means of identifying multicollinearity in this analysis, a correlation matrix of the continuous independent variables is generated pre- regression as a pre-emptive measure to identify any highly correlated variables which may lead to multicollinearity in the models. Pearson’s correlation coefficient is used to estimate the correlation between the continuous variables. Kennedy (2008 , p. 19) describes a high correlation coefficient between two independent variables to be “0.8 or 0.9 in absolute value”.

Ramsey’s RESET test is also conducted post-OLS estimation to determine whether there are omitted variables in the analysis. Ramsey’s RESET runs an augmented regression that includes the original independent variables, powers of the predicted values from the original regression as well as powers of the original independent variables ( Baum, 2006 , p. 122). The null hypothesis is that the model has no omitted variables. If the null hypothesis is rejected the model may be misspecified. Omitted variable bias is a cause of endogeneity.

Endogeneity may also arise from simultaneity in the model. For example, it may be the case that airlines and train networks respond to increases in tourism demand in particular cities by providing more flights and trains to and from those cities. See Cho (2010) for a discussion on possible endogeneity of airline data. As such, an IV generalised method of moments (GMM) estimator will also be estimated to include instruments for potentially endogenous variables. The instruments are constructed using the three-group method commonly used in economic literature; see for example, Noonan, 2021 ; Noonan et al. , 2021 . This involves separating the endogenous variable into three groups of equal size and then creating an instrumental variable which take values of −1, 0 and +1 depending on whether the observation is in the lowest, middle or highest group of observations ( Kennedy, 2008 , p. 160). The Difference-in-Sargan test ( C statistic) is calculated after the IV GMM regression to test for endogeneity. If the null hypothesis of exogeneity is rejected, the model includes endogenous variables and the IV GMM estimator would be more appropriate than the OLS estimator ( Noonan, 2021 ). The results are presented in the next section.

Table 4 presents the correlation matrix of the independent variables used. The matrix reveals that correlations between most variables appear to be weak to moderate. The coefficient of 0.777 between the variables sights and landmarks and museums is the strongest correlation in the matrix. There are also moderate correlations (in excess of 0.5) between museums and concerts and shows and between passenger flights and direct trains . To avoid the problem of multicollinearity, the moderately and highly correlated variables will be entered into separate regressions.

Table 5 presents the result of eight estimations of Equation (1) . Estimations i to vi are OLS estimations. Estimations vii and viii are GMM estimations. All estimations are statistically significant. VIF tests are conducted post-OLS estimation. With mean VIF values ranging from 1.32 to 2.08, it can be concluded that multicollinearity is not a problem. Breusch-Pagan test statistics are estimated for the dependent and independent variables after estimations i to vi. The test statistics are statistically insignificant in all estimations indicating that heteroskedasticity is not a problem. Similarly, the null hypothesis of homoscedasticity cannot be rejected in White’s test for estimations i to vi. The Ramsey RESET test statistic is also statistically insignificant in all estimations. As such, the models are not affected by omitted variable bias.

The variable road accessibility is found to be endogenous. This is instrumented in estimations vii and viii. The C statistic is statistically significant. As such, the null hypothesis of exogeneity is rejected. This suggests the IV GMM estimates are more appropriate than the OLS estimates [ 1 ].

While the GMM estimations are the primary focus of the interpretation, there appears to be similarities across all eight estimations presented. The results provide some evidence to support Hypothesis 1; cultural amenities have as a positive and significant impact on tourism demand. Sights and landmarks , museums and concerts and shows , are positive and significant in both OLS and GMM estimations. They are significant at the 99% confidence level in all estimations. There is also some evidence to suggest that satisfaction with cultural facilities is also a determinant of tourist overnight stays. Satisfaction is positive and significant at the 95% confidence level in Estimation vii. The positive finding for cultural amenities is consistent with positive findings for culture in the empirical literature; for example, Plaza (2000) and Carey et al. (2013) . Greater endowments of sights, landmarks, museums and more concerts and shows as well as satisfaction with cultural facilities leads to increased tourism demand in European cities. The range of cultural amenities that affect tourism demand is interesting. While cities may be endowed with cultural amenities such as sights and landmarks that are centuries old, the significant finding for museums and concerts and shows suggests that culture can be created in cities that do not boast large-scale historical sights and landmarks.

The variable cinema seats is not statistically significant in the estimations. Unlike sights, landmarks and museums which are unique to specific cities and concerts and shows which may only be held in a limited number of locations, cinemas tend to be widely available across cities and cinema offerings are likely to be relatively homogenous across space. Therefore, cinema facilities are unlikely to be a key amenity in attracting tourists to the city. This may explain the insignificant finding.

The variable capturing the availability of theatres is also statistically insignificant in all estimations except for Estimation v where it is negative and significant at the 90% confidence level. It may be the case that the shows offered in the theatres and possibly in the cinemas, may not be produced with tourists in mind. For example, Ben-Dalia et al. (2013) find that theatres in Tel Aviv tend not to offer English or French language translations. If a language barrier exists, this makes cinema and theatre offerings unattractive to tourists.

In terms of the control variables, accessibility, in the form of passenger flights , is statistically insignificant in the GMM estimations. This is unexpected and is not consistent with Van den Berg et al. (1995) , Russo and Van der Borg (2002) and Cho (2010) . Road Accessibility is also statistically insignificant. The variable capturing direct trains to other cities is, however, statistically significant at the 90% level in estimation viii. It must be noted that this study does not distinguish between domestic and international tourists and as such, this may be reflected in the results. It may be the case that domestic tourists are more likely to use the rail network than air transport when visiting cities. In the case of Italy, for example, the car is the most common mode of transport for domestic tourists ( Marrocu and Paci, 2013 ).

Quality of governance and tolerance of foreigners are statistically insignificant in both GMM estimations. This suggests that the variables are not significant determinants of tourism demand in European cities. This contrasts with Tang (2018) who finds that institutional quality is positively related to tourism demand in Malaysia and Mushtaq et al. (2021) who find evidence of institutional quality having a positive impact on tourism arrivals in India.

The capital city dummy variable is also statistically insignificant in both GMM estimations. This suggests that tourism demand is not significantly different in capital cities than in other European cities. However, the GDP per capita and population of cities appear to play a role. Two of the GDP per capita variables are significant in the GMM estimations. Cities with GDP per capita of 20,000–25,000 and <20,000 experience significantly less tourist overnight stays than cities with GDP per capita >35,000. The significant finding for income is consistent with Yang and Wong (2012) who contend that cities with higher incomes can allocate more resources to tourism development. The significant finding is also consistent with Marrocu and Paci (2013) who describe higher income areas as being more likely to attract more business trips and provide better quality public services which are important components of the product provided to tourists ( Marrocu and Paci, 2013 ).

Relative to cities with populations in excess of one million, tourism demand is significantly lower for all cities with populations of less than one million. This finding is not unexpected. Law (1992) identifies that large cities are attractive for visitors due to business activities, retail facilities, sports and culture as well as visits to friends and family. Large cities have many advantages for hosting conferences such as accessibility, accommodation and urban amenities ( Law, 1992 ). Cities with larger populations are also bases for prestigious sports teams ( Law, 1992 ), which may lead to increased sports tourism.

6. Discussion and conclusions

The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of a range of cultural amenities on tourism demand in 168 European cities. In doing so, it addresses two notable shortcomings in the literature. Firstly, it addresses the narrow range of cultural amenities considered in much existing literature by including measures of five cultural amenities. Secondly, while studies tend to be narrow in geographical scope, this paper fills a gap by considering 168 European cities spanning 30 countries. The broad geographical scope of this study is important as it allows stakeholders in the tourism industry to gauge the importance of culture for tourism demand. The results should allow for more informed decision-making to take place as the findings are not specific to a particular location but are relevant across 168 European cities.

Using data from The Culture and Creative Cities Monitor 2017, a series of regressions are estimated. Due to the presence of endogeneity in the road accessibility variable, the GMM estimations are more robust than the OLS estimations and are the focus of the discussion. The results of the analysis reveal that culture, in the form of sights and landmarks, museums, concerts and shows, is a determinant tourism demand across 168 European cities. Satisfaction with cultural facilities in the city is also an important determinant. The insignificant findings for cinema seats and theatres in the GMM estimations are important as they reveal that not all cultural amenities are of equal relevance in stimulating tourism demand. The differing findings for the various cultural amenities support the opinion of Cellini and Cuccia (2013) who believe that different types of cultural amenities may have different relationships with tourism flows.

From a political perspective, important implications can be drawn from this analysis. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the global tourism industry has been badly affected. Travel restrictions have led to a contraction in tourist numbers in many destinations. As countries enter the recovery stage of the pandemic, they will be eager to stimulate tourism demand and facilitate the recovery of the tourism industry. Some governments have already pledged financial support to aid recovery of the sector. For example, in Ireland, a record level of funding of €288.5m has been allocated to the tourism sector in Budget 2022 ( Government of Ireland, 2021 ). A certain amount of funding could be allocated to cities to promote and develop their cultural amenities. For example, governments could provide financial support to the tourism industry to develop marketing campaigns based on the cultural amenities of the cities. Funding could also be allocated to cities to support them in staging a music festival or series of concerts.

Hosting concerts and shows is an avenue that stakeholders in the tourism industry should seriously consider as an opportunity for increasing tourism demand in their cities. While there is obviously a lot of resources, including time, financial resources and manpower, required to host concerts, such events could provide a lucrative means of increasing tourism demand in cities. It is important that all stakeholders in the tourism industry work together to facilitate the recovery of the industry in their cities post-pandemic. This may involve, for example, national governments providing financial supports, local governments and councils issuing licences and permits for such concerts and shows where required as well as ensuring adequate public utilities and services are in place for tourists in their cities. Those working in the tourism industry could oversee the overall organisation and promotion of the event as well as engaging with proprietors and managers from the accommodation and food services sector in the city to arrange for various packages to be put in place for prospective visitors. Given that many concerts, internationally, are held in venues such sporting arenas and open-air sites, it is possible that many European cities would have access to locations to stage such events without having to make large-scale capital investments in terms of building concert halls or event centres. As such, hosting such events could be a viable option to facilitate recovery in many European cities.

The findings of this study also have managerial implications for business operating within the tourism industry. The different findings for the various cultural amenities are relevant from a European industry and policy perspective as it allows stakeholders to identify the cultural amenities that have the greatest impact on tourism in their cities. Therefore, they may put a greater emphasis on the sights, landmarks, museums concerts and shows on offer when promoting their cities to potential tourists. Similarly, tour operators within the cities may design tailored daytrips to the specific cultural amenities that are attractive to tourists.

While sights and landmarks may be associated with the history of a city, not all cultural amenities have to be inherited. Cultural amenities, in the form of hosting concerts and shows, can be actively created in the city. This is particularly positive for cities that are not endowed with numerous cultural sights and landmarks and for cities that do not house many museums. This suggests that culture does not have to be inherited but can be created. Russo and van der Borg (2002) acknowledge that not all cities have a “sufficient mass” of cultural assets and therefore, the assets they possess should be promoted in conjunction with other tourist attractions including events, gastronomy and quality infrastructure and regional networks ( Russo and van der Borg, 2002 , p. 631). Even if a city has a sufficient mass of sight and landmarks, developing alternative cultural amenities is important as Carey et al. (2013) contend that, in the long term, a single successful attraction is insufficient to sustain a destination. Rather, a combination of complementary formal and informal cultural attractions is required to maintain tourist arrivals.

The positive finding for culture is important as it is a product that can be offered throughout the entire year. As such, it provides a means of attracting tourists during the off-peak tourism season. Evidence suggests that there is less seasonality in tourism flows in cultural destinations relative to other destinations ( Cuccia and Rizzo, 2011 ). Greater promotion of the cultural amenities in their cities is something that the tourism industry should consider, as it may provide a lucrative means of increasing tourism demand. This will be particularly important in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic as many businesses develop recovery strategies.

This study provides a first large-scale attempt of econometrically testing the impact of various cultural amenities on tourism demand across 168 different cities. As such, it is not without limitations. The limitations are primarily due to a lack of available data. While various aspects of culture are included in the study, this is not by any means an exhaustive list of cultural amenities. The UNWTO (2019) definition of cultural tourism includes aspects such as culinary heritage, literature and the beliefs and traditions associated with different cultures. It would be worthwhile to also include these aspects in the analysis, but lack of available data means that they cannot be included. It would also be worthwhile to include more qualitative measures of culture into the analysis to gauge the attitudes of tourists towards the various cultural amenities. Primary data collection may be necessary to study such aspects. This is an area for future research.

Furthermore, the dependent variable considers tourist overnight stays in accommodation but does not distinguish between domestic and international visitors to the city. It is possible that cultural amenities may have a different level of importance for the different categories of visitors. For example, Ryan (2002) finds that domestic non-Maori New Zealanders are not attracted to the Maori cultural tourism products to the same extent as Europeans and North Americans. Due to data limitations, it is not possible to make the distinction between domestic and international tourists in this study. Such a distinction would be worthy of further analysis.

Finally, the data used are from The Culture and Creative Cities Monitor 2017. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first year for which this monitor has been published. When future additions become available, it would be worth conducting an analysis over a 5- or 10-year period to identify if there are any changes in the effects of culture on tourism demand over time.

Variables included in the analysis

*** Denotes significant at 99% level, ** denotes significant at 95% level and * denotes significant at 90% level

Source: Calculations author’s own based on data from European Commission (2017)

Multiple IV estimations were run, and instruments were included for a range of potentially endogenous variables. As road accessibility was the only endogenous variable, the other estimations are not included here.

Appendix 1. List of cities included in analysis

Appendix 2. interpretation of 0–100 scale, appendix 3. shapiro–wilk test.

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Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the editor and two referees for their helpful comments.

Corresponding author

About the author.

Lisa Noonan is based at the Department of Economics, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland

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Cutting Edge | Bringing cultural tourism back in the game

The growth of cultural tourism

People have long traveled to discover and visit places of historical significance or spiritual meaning, to experience different cultures, as well as to learn about, exchange and consume a range of cultural goods and services. Cultural tourism as a concept gained traction during the 1990s when certain sub-sectors emerged, including heritage tourism, arts tourism, gastronomic tourism, film tourism and creative tourism. This took place amidst the rising tide of globalization and technological advances that spurred greater mobility through cheaper air travel, increased accessibility to diverse locations and cultural assets, media proliferation, and the rise of independent travel. Around this time, tourism policy was also undergoing a shift that was marked by several trends. These included a sharper focus on regional development, environmental issues, public-private partnerships, industry self-regulation and a reduction in direct government involvement in the supply of tourism infrastructure. As more cultural tourists have sought to explore the cultures of the destinations, greater emphasis has been placed on the importance of intercultural dialogue to promote understanding and tolerance. Likewise, in the face of globalization, countries have looked for ways to strengthen local identity, and cultural tourism has also been engaged as a strategy to achieve this purpose. Being essentially place-based, cultural tourism is driven by an interest to experience and engage with culture first-hand. It is backed by a desire to discover, learn about and enjoy the tangible and intangible cultural assets offered in a tourism destination, ranging from heritage, performing arts, handicrafts, rituals and gastronomy, among others.

Cultural tourism is a leading priority for the majority of countries around the world -featuring in the tourism policy of 90% of countries, based on a 2016 UNWTO global survey . Most countries include tangible and intangible heritage in their definition of cultural tourism, and over 80% include contemporary culture - film, performing arts, design, fashion and new media, among others. There is, however, greater need for stronger localisation in policies, which is rooted in promoting and enhancing local cultural assets, such as heritage, food, festivals and crafts. In France, for instance, the Loire Valley between Sully-sur-Loire and Chalonnes , a UNESCO World Heritage site, has established a multidisciplinary team that defends the cultural values of the site, and advises the authorities responsible for the territorial development of the 300 km of the Valley.

While cultural tourism features prominently in policies for economic growth, it has diverse benefits that cut across the development spectrum – economic, social and environmental. Cultural tourism expands businesses and job opportunities by drawing on cultural resources as a competitive advantage in tourism markets. Cultural tourism is increasingly engaged as a strategy for countries and regions to safeguard traditional cultures, attract talent, develop new cultural resources and products, create creative clusters, and boost the cultural and creative industries. Cultural tourism, particularly through museums, can support education about culture. Tourist interest can also help ensure the transmission of intangible cultural heritage practices to younger generations.

StockSnap, Pixabay

Cultural tourism can help encourage appreciation of and pride in local heritage, thus sparking greater interest and investment in its safeguarding. Tourism can also drive inclusive community development to foster resiliency, inclusivity, and empowerment. It promotes territorial cohesion and socioeconomic inclusion for the most vulnerable populations, for example, generating economic livelihoods for women in rural areas. A strengthened awareness of conservation methods and local and indigenous knowledge contributes to long-term environmental sustainability. Similarly, the funds generated by tourism can be instrumental to ensuring ongoing conservation activities for built and natural heritage.

The growth of cultural tourism has reshaped the global urban landscape over the past decades, strongly impacting spatial planning around the world. In many countries, cultural tourism has been leveraged to drive urban regeneration or city branding strategies, from large-sized metropolises in Asia or the Arab States building on cultural landmarks and contemporary architecture to drive tourism expansion, to small and middle-sized urban settlements enhancing their cultural assets to stimulate local development. At the national level, cultural tourism has also impacted planning decisions, encouraging coastal development in some areas, while reviving inland settlements in others. This global trend has massively driven urban infrastructure development through both public and private investments, impacting notably transportation, the restoration of historic buildings and areas, as well as the rehabilitation of public spaces. The expansion of cultural city networks, including the UNESCO World Heritage Cities programme and the UNESCO Creative Cities Network, also echoes this momentum. Likewise, the expansion of cultural routes, bringing together several cities or human settlements around cultural commonalities to stimulate tourism, has also generated new solidarities, while influencing economic and cultural exchanges between cities across countries and regions.

Despite tourism’s clear potential as a driver for positive change, challenges exist, including navigating the space between economic gain and cultural integrity. Tourism’s crucial role in enhancing inclusive community development can often remain at the margins of policy planning and implementation. Rapid and unplanned tourism growth can trigger a range of negative impacts, including pressure on local communities and infrastructure from overtourism during peak periods, gentrification of urban areas, waste problems and global greenhouse gas emissions. High visitor numbers to heritage sites can override their natural carrying capacity, thus undermining conservation efforts and affecting both the integrity and authenticity of heritage sites. Over-commercialization and folklorization of intangible heritage practices – including taking these practices out of context for tourism purposes - can risk inadvertently changing the practice over time. Large commercial interests can monopolize the benefits of tourism, preventing these benefits from reaching local communities. An excessive dependency on tourism can also create localized monoeconomies at the expense of diversification and alternative economic models. When mismanaged, tourism can, therefore, have negative effects on the quality of life and well-being of local residents, as well as the natural environment.

These fault lines became more apparent when the pandemic hit – revealing the extent of over-dependence on tourism and limited structures for crisis prevention and response. While the current situation facing tourism is unpredictable, making it difficult to plan, further crises are likely in the years to come. Therefore, the pandemic presents the opportunity to experiment with new models to shape more effective and sustainable alternatives for the future.

hxdyl, Getty Images Pro

Harnessing cultural tourism in policy frameworks

From a policy perspective, countries around the world have employed cultural tourism as a vehicle to achieve a range of strategic aims. In Panama, cultural tourism is a key component of the country’s recently adopted Master Plan for Sustainable Tourism 2020-2025 that seeks to position Panama as a worldwide benchmark for sustainable tourism through the development of unique heritage routes. Cultural tourism can be leveraged for cultural diplomacy as a form of ‘soft power’ to build dialogue between peoples and bolster foreign policy. For instance, enhancing regional cooperation between 16 countries has been at the heart of UNESCO’s transnational Silk Roads Programme, which reflects the importance of culture and heritage as part of foreign policy. UNESCO has also partnered with the EU and National Geographic to develop World Heritage Journeys, a unique travel platform that deepens the tourism experience through four selected cultural routes covering 34 World Heritage sites. Also in Europe, cultural tourism has been stimulated through the development of cultural routes linked to food and wine , as well as actions to protect local food products, such as through labels and certificates of origin. The Emilia-Romagna region in Italy, for example, produces more origin-protected food and drink than any other region in the country. One of the regions' cities Parma - a UNESCO Creative City (Gastronomy) and designated Italian Capital for Culture (2020-2021) - plans to resume its cultural activities to boost tourism once restrictions have eased. Meanwhile, Spain has recently taken steps to revive its tourism industry through its cities inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List . In this regard, the Group of the 15 Spanish World Heritage Cities met recently to discuss the country's Modernization and Competitiveness Plan for the tourism sector. Cultural tourism has progressively featured more prominently in the policies of Central Asian and Eastern European countries, which have sought to revive intangible heritage and boost the creative economy as part of strategies to strengthen national cultural identity and open up to the international community. In Africa, cultural tourism is a growing market that is driven by its cultural heritage, crafts, and national and regional cultural events. Major festivals such as Dak-Art in Senegal, Bamako Encounters Photography Biennial in Mali, Sauti za Busara in United Republic of Tanzania, Pan-African Festival of Cinema and Television of Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso, and Chale Wote Street Art Festival in Ghana are just a handful of vibrant and popular platforms in the continent that share cultural expressions, generate income for local economies and strengthen Pan-African identity.

Countries are increasingly seeking alliances with international bodies to advance tourism. National and local governments are working together with international entities, such as UNESCO, UNWTO and OECD in the area of sustainable tourism. In 2012, UNESCO’s Sustainable Tourism Programme was adopted, thereby breaking new ground to promote tourism a driver for the conservation of cultural and natural heritage and a vehicle for sustainable development. In 2020, UNESCO formed the Task Force on Culture and Resilient Tourism with the Advisory Bodies to the 1972 World Heritage Convention (ICOMOS, IUCN, ICCROM) as a global dialogue platform on key issues relating to tourism and heritage management during and beyond the crisis. UNESCO has also collaborated with the UNWTO on a set of recommendations for inclusive cultural tourism recovery from the COVID-19 crisis. In response to the crisis, the Namibian Government, UNESCO and UNDP are working together on a tourism impact study and development strategy to restore the tourism sector, especially cultural tourism.

UNESCO has scaled up work in cultural tourism in its work at field level, supporting its Member States and strengthening regional initiatives. In the Africa region, enhancing cultural tourism has been reported as a policy priority across the region. For example, UNESCO has supported the Government of Ghana in its initiative Beyond the Return, in particular in relation to its section on cultural tourism. In the Pacific, a Common Country Assessment (CCA) has been carried out for 14 SIDS countries, with joint interagency programmes to be created building on the results. Across the Arab States, trends in tourism after COVID, decent jobs and cultural and creative industries are emerging as entry points for different projects throughout the region. In Europe, UNESCO has continued its interdisciplinary work on visitor centres in UNESCO designated sites, building on a series of workshops to strengthen tourism sustainability, community engagement and education through heritage interpretation. In the Latin America and the Caribbean region, UNESCO is working closely with Member States, regional bodies and the UN system building on the momentum on the International Year of Creative Economy for Sustainable Development, including through Creative Cities, and the sustainable recovery of the orange economy, among others.

BS1920, Pixabay

In the context of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, tourism has the potential to contribute, directly or indirectly, to all of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Tourism is directly mentioned in SDGs 8, 12 and 14 on inclusive and sustainable economic growth, sustainable consumption and production (SCP) and the sustainable use of oceans and marine resources, respectively. This is mirrored in the VNRs put forward by countries, who report on cultural tourism notably through the revitalization of urban and rural areas through heritage regeneration, festivals and events, infrastructure development, and the promotion of local cultural products. The VNRs also demonstrate a trend towards underlining more sustainable approaches to tourism that factor in the environmental dimensions of tourism development.

Several countries have harnessed cultural tourism as a policy panacea for economic growth and diversification. As part of Qatar's National Vision 2030 strategy, for example, the country has embarked on a development plan that includes cultural tourism through strengthening its culture-based industries, including calligraphy, handicrafts and living heritage practices. In the city of Abu Dhabi in the UAE, cultural tourism is part of the city’s plan for economic diversification and to steer its domestic agenda away from a hydrocarbon-based economy. The Plan Abu Dhabi 2030 includes the creation of a US$27 billion cultural district on Saadiyat Island, comprising a cluster of world-renowned museums, and cultural and educational institutions designed by international star architects to attract tourism and talent to the city. Since 2016, Saudi Arabia has taken decisive action to invest in tourism, culture and entertainment to reduce the country’s oil dependency, while also positioning the country as a global cultural destination. Under the 2020 G20 Saudi Presidency, the UNWTO and the G20 Tourism Working Group launched the AlUla Framework for Inclusive Community Development through Tourism to better support inclusive community development and the SDGs. The crucial role of tourism as a means of sustainable socio-economic development was also underlined in the final communique of the G20 Tourism Ministers in October last.

Siem Reap, Cambodia by nbriam

On the other hand, cultural tourism can catalyse developments in cultural policy. This was the case in the annual Festival of Pacific Arts (FestPac) that triggered a series of positive policy developments following its 2012 edition that sought to strengthen social cohesion and community pride in the context of a prolonged period of social unrest. The following year, Solomon Islands adopted its first national culture policy with a focus on cultural industries and cultural tourism, which resulted in a significant increase in cultural events being organized throughout the country.

When the pandemic hit, the geographic context of some countries meant that many of them were able to rapidly close borders and prioritize domestic tourism. This has been the case for countries such as Australia and New Zealand. However, the restrictions have been coupled by significant economic cost for many Small Island Developing States (SIDS) whose economies rely on tourism and commodity exports. Asia Pacific SIDS, for example, are some of the world’s leading tourist destinations. As reported in the Tracker last June , in 2018, tourism earnings exceeded 50% of GDP in Cook Islands, Maldives and Palau and equaled approximately 30% of GDP in Samoa and Vanuatu. When the pandemic hit in 2020, the drop in British tourists to Spain’s Balearic Islands resulted in a 93% downturn in visitor numbers , forcing many local businesses to close. According to the World Economic Outlook released last October, the economies of tourism-dependent Caribbean nations are estimated to drop by 12%, while Pacific Island nations, such as Fiji, could see their GDP shrink by a staggering 21% in 2020.

Socially-responsible travel and ecotourism have become more of a priority for tourists and the places they visit. Tourists are increasingly aware of their carbon footprint, energy consumption and the use of renewable resources. This trend has been emphasized as a result of the pandemic. According to recent survey by Booking.com, travelers are becoming more conscientious of how and why they travel, with over two-thirds (69%) expecting the travel industry to offer more sustainable travel options . Following the closures of beaches in Thailand, for example, the country is identifying ways to put certain management policies in place that can strike a better balance with environmental sustainability. The  UNESCO Sustainable Tourism Pledge  launched in partnership with Expedia Group focuses on promoting sustainable tourism and heritage conservation. The pledge takes an industry-first approach to environmental and cultural protection, requiring businesses to introduce firm measures to eliminate single-use plastics and promote local culture. The initiative is expanding globally in 2021 as a new, more environmentally and socially conscious global travel market emerges from the COVID-19 context.

Senja, Norway by Jarmo Piironen

Climate change places a heavy toll on heritage sites, which exacerbates their vulnerability to other risks, including uncontrolled tourism. This was underlined in the publication “World Heritage and Tourism in a Changing Climate” , published by UNESCO, UNEP and the Union of Concerned Scientists, which analyses the consequences of climate change on heritage, and its potential to permanently change or destroy a site’s integrity and authenticity. Extreme weather events, safety issues and water shortages, among others, can thwart access to sites and hurt the economic livelihoods of tourism service providers and local communities. Rising sea levels will increasingly impact coastal tourism, the largest component of the sector globally. In particular, coral reefs - contributing US$11.5 billion to the global tourism economy – are at major risk from climate change.

Marine sites are often tourist magnets where hundreds of thousands of annual visitors enjoy these sites on yachts and cruise ships. In the case of UNESCO World Heritage marine sites – which fall under the responsibility of governments - there is often a reliance on alternative financing mechanisms, such as grants and donations, and partnerships with non-governmental organizations and/or the private sector, among others. The West Norwegian Fjords – Geirangerfjord and Nærøyfjord in Norway derives a substantial portion of its management budget from sources other than government revenues. The site has benefited from a partnership with the private sector company Green Dream 2020, which only allows the “greenest” operators to access the site, and a percentage of the profits from tours is reinjected into the long-term conservation of the site. In iSimangaliso in South Africa, a national law that established the World Heritage site’s management system was accompanied by the obligation to combine the property’s conservation with sustainable economic development activities that created jobs for local people. iSimangaliso Wetland Park supports 12,000 jobs and hosts an environmental education programme with 150 schools. At the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, where 91% of all local jobs are linked to the Reef, the Coral Nurture Programme undertakes conservation through planting coral, and promotes local stewardship and adaptation involving the whole community and local tourist businesses.

Grafner, Getty Images

With borders continuing to be closed and changeable regulations, many countries have placed a focus on domestic tourism and markets to stimulate economic recovery. According to the UNWTO, domestic tourism is expected to pick up faster than international travel, making it a viable springboard for economic and social recovery from the pandemic. In doing so it will serve to better connect populations to their heritage and offer new avenues for cultural access and participation. In China, for example, the demand for domestic travel is already approaching pre-pandemic levels. In Russian Federation, the Government has backed a programme to promote domestic tourism and support small and medium-sized enterprises, as well as a cashback scheme for domestic trips, which entitles tourists to a 20% refund for their trip. While supporting domestic tourism activities, the Government of Palau is injecting funds into local businesses working in reforestation and fishing in the spirit of building new sustainable models. The measures put in place today will shape the tourism to come, therefore the pandemic presents an opportunity to build back a stronger, more agile and sustainable tourism sector.

Local solutions at the helm of cultural tourism

While state-led policy interventions in cultural tourism remain crucial, local authorities are increasingly vital stakeholders in the design and implementation of cultural tourism policies. Being close to the people, local actors are aware of the needs of local populations, and can respond quickly and provide innovative ideas and avenues for policy experimentation. As cultural tourism is strongly rooted to place, cooperating with local decision-makers and stakeholders can bring added value to advancing mutual objectives. Meanwhile, the current health crisis has severely shaken cities that are struggling due to diminished State support, and whose economic basis strongly relies on tourism. Local authorities have been compelled to innovate to support local economies and seek viable alternatives, thus reaffirming their instrumental role in cultural policy-making.

Venice, Oliver Dralam/Getty Images

Cultural tourism can be a powerful catalyst for urban regeneration and renaissance, although tourism pressure can also trigger complex processes of gentrification. Cultural heritage safeguarding enhances the social value of a place by boosting the well-being of individuals and communities, reducing social inequalities and nurturing social inclusion. Over the past decade, the Malaysian city of George Town – a World Heritage site – has implemented several innovative projects to foster tourism and attract the population back to the city centre by engaging the city’s cultural assets in urban revitalization strategies. Part of the income generated from tourism revenues contributes to conserving and revitalizing the built environment, as well as supporting housing for local populations, including lower-income communities. In the city of Bordeaux in France , the city has worked with the public-private company InCité to introduce a system of public subsidies and tax exemption to encourage the restoration of privately-owned historical buildings, which has generated other rehabilitation works in the historic centre. The city of Kyoto in Japan targets a long-term vision of sustainability by enabling local households to play an active role in safeguarding heritage by incrementally updating their own houses, thus making the city more resilient to gentrification. The city also actively supports the promotion of its intangible heritage, such as tea ceremonies, flower arrangement, seasonal festivals, Noh theatre and dance. This year marks the ten-year anniversary of the adoption of the UNESCO Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (HUL). The results of a UNESCO survey carried out among Member States in 2019 on its implementation show that 89% of respondents have innovative services or tourism activities in place for historic areas, which demonstrates a precedence for countries to capitalize on urban cultural heritage for tourism purposes.

Cultural tourism has been harnessed to address rural-urban migration and to strengthen rural and peripheral sub-regions. The city of Suzhou – a World Heritage property and UNESCO Creative City (Crafts and Folk Art) - has leveraged its silk embroidery industry to strengthen the local rural economy through job creation in the villages of Wujiang, located in a district of Suzhou. Tourists can visit the ateliers and local museums to learn about the textile production. In northern Viet Nam, the cultural heritage of the Quan họ Bắc Ninh folk songs, part of the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, is firmly rooted in place and underlined in its safeguarding strategies in 49 ancient villages, which have further inspired the establishment of some hundreds of new Quan họ villages in the Bắc Ninh and Bắc Giang provinces.

Many top destination cities are known for their iconic cultural landmarks. Others create a cultural drawcard to attract visitors to the city. France, the world's number one tourist destination , attracts 89 million visitors every year who travel to experience its cultural assets, including its extensive cultural landmarks. In the context of industrial decline, several national and local governments have looked to diversify infrastructure by harnessing culture as a new economic engine. The Guggenheim museum in Bilbao in Spain is one such example, where economic diversification and unemployment was addressed through building a modern art museum as a magnet for tourism. The museum attracts an average of 900,000 visitors annually, which has strengthened the local economy of the city. A similar approach is the Museum of Old and New Art (MONA), established in 2011 by a private entrepreneur in the city of Hobart in Australia, which has catalysed a massive increase of visitors to the city. With events such as MONA FOMA in summer and Dark MOFO in winter, the museum staggers visitor volumes to the small city to avoid placing considerable strain on the local environment and communities. Within the tourism sector, cultural tourism is also well-positioned to offer a tailored approach to tourism products, services and experiences. Such models have also supported the wider ecosystems around the iconic cultural landmarks, as part of “destination tourism” strategies.

Destination tourism encompasses festivals, live performance, film and festive celebrations as drawcards for international tourists and an economic driver of the local economy. Over the past three decades, the number of art biennials has proliferated. Today there are more than 300 biennials around the world , whose genesis can be based both on artistic ambitions and place-making strategies to revive specific destinations. As a result of COVID-19, many major biennials and arts festivals have been cancelled or postponed. Both the Venice Architecture and Art Biennales have been postponed to 2022 due to COVID-19. The Berlin International Film Festival will hold its 2021 edition online and in selected cinemas. Film-induced tourism - motivated by a combination of media expansion, entertainment industry growth and international travel - has also been used for strategic regional development, infrastructure development and job creation, as well to market destinations to tourists. China's highest-grossing film of 2012 “Lost in Thailand”, for example, resulted in a tourist boom to Chiang Mai in Thailand, with daily flights to 17 Chinese cities to accommodate the daily influx of thousands of tourists who came to visit the film’s location. Since March 2020, tourism-related industries in New York City in the United States have gone into freefall, with revenue from the performing arts alone plunging by almost 70%. As the city is reliant on its tourism sector, the collapse of tourism explains why New York’s economy has been harder hit than other major cities in the country. Meanwhile in South Africa, when the first ever digital iteration of the country’s annual National Arts Festival took place last June, it also meant an estimated US$25.7 million (R377 million) and US$6.4 million (R94 million) loss to the Eastern Cape province and city of Makhanda (based on 2018 figures), in addition to the US$1.4 million (R20 million) that reaches the pockets of the artists and supporting industries. The United Kingdom's largest music festival, Glastonbury, held annually in Somerset, recently cancelled for the second year running due to the pandemic, which will have ripple effects on local businesses and the charities that receive funding from ticket sales.

Similarly, cancellations of carnivals from Santa Cruz de Tenerife in the Canary Islands to Binche in Belgium has spurred massive losses for local tourism providers, hotels, restaurants, costume-makers and dance schools. In the case of the Rio de Janeiro Carnival in Brazil, for instance, the city has amassed significant losses for the unstaged event, which in 2019 attracted 1.5 million tourists from Brazil and abroad and generated revenues in the range of US$700 million (BRL 3.78 billion). The knock-on effect on the wider economy due to supply chains often points to an estimated total loss that is far greater than those experienced solely by the cultural tourism sector.

Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Spain by erlucho

Every year, roughly 600 million national and international religious and spiritual trips take place , generating US$18 billion in tourism revenue. Pilgrimages, a fundamental precursor to modern tourism, motivate tourists solely through religious practices. Religious tourism is particularly popular in France, India, Italy and Saudi Arabia. For instance, the Hindu pilgrimage and festival Kumbh Mela in India, inscribed in 2017 on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, attracts over 120 million pilgrims of all castes, creeds and genders. The festival is held in the cities of Allahabad, Haridwar, Ujjain and Nasik every four years by rotation. Sacred and ceremonial sites have unique significance for peoples and communities, and are often integral to journeys that promote spiritual well-being. Mongolia, for example, has around 800 sacred sites including 10 mountains protected by Presidential Decree, and lakes and ovoos, many of which have their own sutras. In the case of Mongolia, the environmental stewardship and rituals and practices connected with these sacred places also intersects with longstanding political traditions and State leadership.

Cities with a vibrant cultural scene and assets are not only more likely to attract tourists, but also the skilled talent who can advance the city’s long-term prospects. Several cities are also focusing on developing their night-time economies through the promotion of theatre, concerts, festivals, light shows and use of public spaces that increasingly making use of audio-visual technologies. Situated on Chile’s Pacific coast, the city of Valparaíso, a World Heritage site, is taking steps to transform the city’s night scene into a safe and inclusive tourist destination through revitalizing public spaces. While the economies of many cities have been weakened during the pandemic, the night-time economy of the city of Chengdu in China, a UNESCO Creative City for Gastronomy, has flourished and has made a significant contribution to generating revenue for the city, accounting for 45% of citizen’s daily expenditure.

The pandemic has generated the public’s re-appropriation of the urban space. People have sought open-air sites and experiences in nature. In many countries that are experiencing lockdowns, public spaces, including parks and city squares, have proven essential for socialization and strengthening resilience. People have also reconnected with the heritage assets in their urban environments. Local governments, organizations and civil society have introduced innovative ways to connect people and encourage creative expression. Cork City Council Arts Office and Creative Ireland, for example, jointly supported the art initiative Ardú- Irish for ‘Rise’ – involving seven renowned Irish street artists who produced art in the streets and alleyways of Cork.

Chengdu Town Square, China by Lukas Bischoff

Environment-based solutions support integrated approaches to deliver across the urban-rural continuum, and enhance visitor experiences by drawing on the existing features of a city. In the city of Bamberg, a World Heritage site in Germany, gardens are a key asset of the city and contribute to its livability and the well-being of its local population and visitors. More than 12,000 tourists enjoy this tangible testimony to the local history and environment on an annual basis. Eighteen agricultural businesses produce local vegetables, herbs, flowers and shrubs, and farm the inner-city gardens and surrounding agricultural fields. The museum also organizes gastronomic events and cooking classes to promote local products and recipes.

In rural areas, crafts can support strategies for cultural and community-based tourism. This is particularly the case in Asia, where craft industries are often found in rural environments and can be an engine for generating employment and curbing rural-urban migration. Craft villages have been established in Viet Nam since the 11th century, constituting an integral part of the cultural resources of the country, and whose tourism profits are often re-invested into the sustainability of the villages. The craft tradition is not affected by heavy tourist seasons and tourists can visit all year round.

Indigenous tourism can help promote and maintain indigenous arts, handicrafts, and culture, including indigenous culture and traditions, which are often major attractions for visitors. Through tourism, indigenous values and food systems can also promote a less carbon-intensive industry. During COVID-19, the Government of Canada has given a series of grants to indigenous tourism businesses to help maintain livelihoods. UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Committee for the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions announced that it will grant, through the International Fund for Creative Diversity (IFCD), US$70,000 dollars to Mexican indigenous cultural enterprises, which will support indigenous enterprises through training programmes, seed funding, a pre-incubation process and the creation of an e-commerce website.

Tourism has boosted community pride in living heritage and the active involvement of local communities in its safeguarding. Local authorities, cultural associations, bearers and practitioners have made efforts to safeguard and promote elements as they have understood that not only can these elements strengthen their cultural identity but that they can also contribute to tourism and economic development. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the role of intellectual property and in the regulation of heritage. In the field of gastronomy, a lot of work has been done in protecting local food products, including the development of labels and certification of origin. Member States are exploring the possibilities of geographical indication (GI) for cultural products as a way of reducing the risk of heritage exploitation in connection to, for example, crafts, textiles and food products, and favouring its sustainable development.

The pandemic has brought to the forefront the evolving role of museums and their crucial importance to the life of societies in terms of health and well-being, education and the economy. A 2019 report by the World Health Organization (WHO) examined 3,000 studies on the role of the arts in improving health and well-being, which indicated that the arts play a major role in preventing, managing and treating illness. Over the past decade the number of museums has increased by 60%, demonstrating the important role that museums have in national cultural policy. Museums are not static but are rather dynamic spaces of education and dialogue, with the potential to boost public awareness about the value of cultural and natural heritage, and the responsibility to contribute to its safeguarding.

Data presented in UNESCO's report "Museums Around the World in the Face of COVID-19" in May 2020 show that 90% of institutions were forced to close, whereas the situation in September-October 2020 was much more variable depending on their location in the world. Large museums have consistently been the most heavily impacted by the drop in international tourism – notably in Europe and North America. Larger museums, such as Amsterdam’s Rijksmuseum and Vienna’s Kunsthistorisches Museum have reported losses between €100,000 and €600,000 a week. Smaller museums have been relatively stable, as they are not as reliant on international tourism and have maintained a closer connection to local communities. In November, the Network of European Museum Organisations (NEMO) released the results of a survey of 6,000 museums from 48 countries. Of the responding museums, 93% have increased or started online services during the pandemic. Most larger museums (81%) have increased their digital capacities, while only 47% of smaller museums indicated that they did. An overwhelming majority of respondents (92.9%) confirm that the public is safe at their museum. As reported in the Tracker last October, the world’s most visited museum, the Louvre in France (9.3 million visitors annually) witnessed a ten-fold increase in traffic to its website. Yet while digital technologies have provided options for museums to remain operational, not all have the necessary infrastructure, which is the case for many museums in Africa and SIDS.

New technologies have enabled several new innovations that can better support cultural tourism and digital technologies in visitor management, access and site interpretation. Cultural tourists visiting cultural heritage sites, for example, can enjoy educational tools that raise awareness of a site and its history. Determining carrying capacity through algorithms has helped monitor tourist numbers, such as in Hạ Long Bay in Viet Nam. In response to the pandemic, Singapore’s Asian Civilizations Museum is one of many museums that has harnessed digital technologies to provide virtual tours of its collections, thus allowing viewers to learn more about Asian cultures and histories. The pandemic has enhanced the need for technology solutions to better manage tourism flows at destinations and encourage tourism development in alternative areas.

Shaping a post-pandemic vision : regenerative and inclusive cultural tourism

As tourism is inherently dependent on the movement and interaction of people, it has been one of the hardest-hit sectors by the pandemic and may be one of the last to recover. Travel and international border restrictions have led to the massive decline in tourism in 2020, spurring many countries to implement strategies for domestic tourism to keep economies afloat. Many cultural institutions and built and natural heritage sites have established strict systems of physical distancing and hygiene measures, enabling them to open once regulations allow. Once travel restrictions have been lifted, it will enable the recovery of the tourism sector and for the wider economy and community at large.

While the pandemic has dramatically shifted the policy context for cultural tourism, it has also provided the opportunity to experiment with integrated models that can be taken forward in the post-pandemic context. While destinations are adopting a multiplicity of approaches to better position sustainability in their plans for tourism development, there is no one-size-fits-all solution.

A comprehensive, integrated approach to the cultural sector is needed to ensure more sustainable cultural tourism patterns. Efforts aimed at promoting cultural tourism destinations should build on the diversity of cultural sub-sectors, including cultural and heritage sites, museums, but also the creative economy and living heritage, notably local practices, food and crafts production. Beyond cultural landmarks, which act as a hotspot to drive the attractiveness of tourism destinations, and particularly cities, cultural tourism should also encompass other aspects of the cultural value chain as well as more local, community-based cultural expressions. Such an integrated approach is likely to support a more equitable distribution of cultural tourism revenues, also spreading tourism flows over larger areas, thus curbing the negative impacts of over-tourism on renowned cultural sites, including UNESCO World Heritage sites. This comprehensive vision also echoes the growing aspiration of visitors around the world for more inclusive and sustainable tourism practices, engaging with local communities and broadening the understanding of cultural diversity.

As a result of the crisis, the transversal component of cultural tourism has been brought to the fore, demonstrating its cross-cutting nature and alliance with other development areas. Cultural tourism – and tourism more broadly – is highly relevant to the 2030 for Sustainable Development and its 17 SDGs, however, the full potential of cultural tourism for advancing development – economic, social and environmental - remains untapped. This is even though cultural tourism is included in a third of all countries’ VNRs, thus demonstrating its priority for governments. Due the transversal nature of cultural tourism, there is scope to build on these synergies and strengthen cooperation between ministries to advance cooperation for a stronger and more resilient sector. This plays an integral role in ensuring a regenerative and inclusive cultural tourism sector. Similarly, tourism can feature as criteria for certain funding initiatives, or as a decisive component for financing cultural projects, such as in heritage or the cultural and creative industries.

Houses in Amsterdam, adisa, Getty, Images Pro

Several countries have harnessed the crisis to step up actions towards more sustainable models of cultural tourism development by ensuring that recovery planning is aligned with key sustainability principles and the SDGs. Tourism both impacts and is impacted by climate change. There is scant evidence of integration of climate strategies in tourism policies, as well as countries’ efforts to develop solid crisis preparedness and response strategies for the tourism sector. The magnitude and regional variation of climate change in the coming decades will continue to affect cultural tourism, therefore, recovery planning should factor in climate change concerns. Accelerating climate action is of utmost importance for the resilience of the sector.

The key role of local actors in cultural tourism should be supported and developed. States have the opportunity to build on local knowledge, networks and models to forge a stronger and more sustainable cultural tourism sector. This includes streamlining cooperation between different levels of governance in the cultural tourism sector and in concert with civil society and private sector. Particularly during the pandemic, many cities and municipalities have not received adequate State support and have instead introduced measures and initiatives using local resources. In parallel, such actions can spur new opportunities for employment and training that respond to local needs.

Greater diversification in cultural tourism models is needed, backed by a stronger integration of the sector within broader economic and regional planning. An overdependence of the cultural sector on the tourism sector became clear for some countries when the pandemic hit, which saw their economies come to a staggering halt. This has been further weakened by pre-existing gaps in government and industry preparedness and response capacity. The cultural tourism sector is highly fragmented and interdependent, and relies heavily on micro and small enterprises. Developing a more in-depth understanding of tourism value chains can help identify pathways for incremental progress. Similarly, more integrated – and balanced – models can shape a more resilient sector that is less vulnerable to future crises. Several countries are benefiting from such approaches by factoring in a consideration of the environmental and socio-cultural pillars of sustainability, which is supported across all levels of government and in concert with all stakeholders.

abhishek gaurav, Pexels

Inclusion must be at the heart of building back better the cultural tourism sector. Stakeholders at different levels should participate in planning and management, and local communities cannot be excluded from benefitting from the opportunities and economic benefits of cultural tourism. Moreover, they should be supported and empowered to create solutions from the outset, thus forging more sustainable and scalable options in the long-term. Policy-makers need to ensure that cultural tourism development is pursued within a wider context of city and regional strategies in close co-operation with local communities and industry. Businesses are instrumental in adopting eco-responsible practices for transport, accommodation and food. A balance between public/ private investment should also be planned to support an integrated approach post-crisis, which ensures input and support from industry and civil society.

The COVID-19 crisis has highlighted the essential role of museums as an integral component of societies in terms of well-being, health, education and the economy. Digitalization has been a game-changer for many cultural institutions to remain operational to the greatest extent possible. Yet there are significant disparities in terms of infrastructure and resources, which was underscored when the world shifted online. Museums in SIDS have faced particular difficulties with lack of access to digitalization. These imbalances should be considered in post-crisis strategies.

The pandemic presents an occasion to deeply rethink tourism for the future, and what constitutes the markers and benchmarks of “success”. High-quality cultural tourism is increasingly gaining traction in new strategies for recovery and revival, in view of contributing to the long-term health and resilience of the sector and local communities. Similarly, many countries are exploring ways to fast track towards greener, more sustainable tourism development. As such, the pandemic presents an opportunity for a paradigm shift - the transformation of the culture and tourism sectors to become more inclusive and sustainable. Moreover, this includes incorporating tourism approaches that not only avoid damage but have a positive impact on the environment of tourism destinations and local communities. This emphasis on regenerative tourism has a holistic approach that measures tourism beyond its financial return, and shifts the pendulum towards focusing on the concerns of local communities, and the wellbeing of people and planet.

Entabeni Game Reserve in South Africa by SL_Photography

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What is cultural tourism and why is it growing?

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Cultural tourism is big business. Some people seek to embark on their travels with the sole intention of having a ‘cultural’ experience, whereas others may experience culture as a byproduct of their trip. We can argue that there is some form of cultural tourism in most holidays (even when taking an all-inclusive holiday you might try to local beer, for example).

But what do we mean by the term ‘cultural tourism’? What’s it all about? In this post I will explain what is meant by the term cultural tourism, providing a range of academic definitions. I will also explain what the different types of cultural tourists are, give examples of cultural tourism activities and discuss the impacts of cultural tourism. Lastly, I will provide a brief summary of some popular cultural tourism destinations.

What is cultural tourism?

Cultural tourism is the act of travellers visiting particular destinations in order to experience and learn about a particular culture . This can include many activities such as; attending events and festivals, visiting museums and tasting the local food and drinks.

Cultural tourism can also be an unintentional part of the tourism experience, whereby cultural immersion (with the local people, their language, customs, cuisine etc) is an inevitable part of a person’s holiday.

Cultural tourism definitions

It has been suggested that tourism is the ideal arena in which to investigate the nature of cultural production (MacCannell, 1976). Tourism provides endless opportunities to learn about the way other people live, about their society and their traditions. Whether you are attending the Running of the Bulls Festival in Pamplona , visiting the pyramids in ancient Egypt , taking a tour of the tea plantations in China or enjoying the locally brewed Ouzo on your all-inclusive holiday to Greece, you will inevitably encounter some form of cultural tourism as part of your holiday experience.

The World Tourism Organisation (WTO) (1985) broadly define cultural tourism as the movements of persons who satisfy the human need for diversity, tending to raise the cultural level of the individual and giving rise to new knowledge, experience and encounters. Cultural tourism is commonly associated with education in this way, some describing it more narrowly as educational cultural tourism (e.g. Bualis and Costa, 2006; Harner and Swarbrooke, 2007; Richards, 2005).

Although a common, more specific definition has not been agreed amongst academics due to the complexity and subjectivity of the term, there do appear to be two distinct viewpoints. The first focusses upon the consumption of cultural products such as sites or monuments (Bonink, 1992; Munsters, 1994), and the second comprises all aspects of travel, where travellers learn about the history and heritage of others or about their contemporary ways of life or thought (MacIntosh and Goeldner, 1986).

Csapo (2012) pertains that the umbrella term of cultural tourism can encompass a number of tourism forms including heritage (material e.g. historic buildings and non-material e.g. literature, arts), cultural thematic routes (e.g. spiritual, gastronomic, linguistic), cultural city tourism, traditions/ethnic tourism, events and festivals, religious tourism and creative culture (e.g. performing arts, crafts).

Types of cultural tourists

In attempt to understand the scope of cultural tourism academics have developed a number of typologies, usually based upon the tourist’s level of motivation.

Bywater (1993) differentiated tourists according to whether they were culturally interested, motivated or inspired.

Culturally interested tourists demonstrate a general interest in culture and consume cultural attractions casually as part of a holiday rather than consciously planning to do so.

Culturally motivated tourists consume culture as a major part of their trip, but do not choose their destination on the basis of specific cultural experiences, whereas for culturally inspired tourists culture is the main goal of their holiday. 

A more complex typology was proposed by McKercher and Du Cros (2002), who defined tourists based upon the depth of the cultural experience sought, distinguishing them in to one of five hierarchical categories. 

The first is the purposeful cultural tourist for whom cultural tourism is their primary motive for travel. These tourists have a very deep cultural experience. 

The second category is the sightseeing cultural tourist for whom cultural tourism is a primary reason for visiting a destination, but the experience is more shallow in nature.

The serendipitous cultural tourist does not travel for cultural reasons, but who, after participating, ends up having a deep cultural tourism experience, whilst the casual cultural tourist is weakly motivated by culture and subsequently has a shallow experience. 

Lastly, the incidental cultural tourist is one who does not travel for cultural tourism reasons but nonetheless participates in some activities and has shallow experiences. 

Adapting this theory, Petroman  et al (2013) segments tourists based upon their preferred cultural activities.

The purposeful cultural tourist, described as according to Mckercher and Du Cros (2002), enjoys learning experiences that challenge them intellectually and visits history museums, art galleries, temples and heritage sites that are less known.

The tour-amateur cultural tourist is akin with the sightseeing cultural tourist above and they often travel long distances, visit remote areas, enjoy tours and wandering through the streets.

The occasional cultural tourist plays a moderate role in the decision of travelling and enjoys an insignificant cultural experience, their preferred activities being to visit attractions and temples that are easy to reach and to explore, although not to the extent that the tour-amateur cultural tourist does.

The incidental cultural tourist plays a small or no role in the decision to travel and enjoys an insignificant cultural experience, whilst visiting attractions that area within easy reach and heritage theme parks.

The last segment is the accidental cultural tourist, who plays a small or no role in the decision to travel but enjoys a deep cultural experience. This tourist type is diverse and as such has no preferred activities attributed to it. 

Importance of cultural tourism

Cultural tourism is important for many reasons. Perhaps the most prominent reason is the social impact that it brings.

Cultural tourism can help reinforce identities, enhance cross cultural understanding and preserve the heritage and culture of an area. I have discussed these advantages at length in my post The Social Impacts of Tourism , so you may want to head over there for more detail.

Cultural tourism can also have positive economic impacts . Tourists who visit an area to learn more about a culture or who visit cultural tourism attraction, such as museums or shows, during their trip help to contribute to the economy of the area. Attractions must be staffed, bringing with it employment prospects and tertiary businesses can also benefit, such as restaurants, taxi firms and hotels.

Furthermore, for those seeking a deep cultural experience, options such as homestays can have positive economic benefits to the members of the community who host the tourists.

Read also: Overtourism explained: What, why and where

Personally, I think that one of the most important benefits of cultural tourism is the educational aspect. Tourists and hosts alike can learn more about different ways of life. This can help to broaden one’s mind, it can help one to think differently and to be more objective. These are qualities that can have many positive effects on a person and which can contribute to making them more employable in the future.

Cultural tourism activities

Whether a tourist is seeking a deep cultural experience or otherwise, there are a wide range of activities that can be classified as cultural tourism. Here are a few examples:

• Staying with a local family in a homestay
• Having a tour around a village or town
• Learning about local employment, for example through a tour of a tea plantation or factory
• Undertaking volunteer work in the local community
• Taking a course such as cooking, art, embroidery etc
• Visiting a museum
• Visiting a religious building, such as a Mosque
• Socialising with members of the local community
• Visiting a local market or shopping area
• Trying the local food and drink
• Going to a cultural show or performance
• Visiting historic monuments

Impacts of cultural tourism

There are a range of impacts resulting from cultural tourism activities, both good and bad. Here are some of the most common examples:

Positive impacts of cultural tourism

Revitalisation of culture and art.

Some destinations will encourage local cultures and arts to be revitalised. This may be in the form of museum exhibitions, in the way that restaurants and shops are decorated and in the entertainment on offer, for example.

This may help promote traditions that may have become distant.

Preservation of Heritage

Many tourists will visit the destination especially to see its local heritage. It is for this reason that many destinations will make every effort to preserve its heritage.

This could include putting restrictions in place or limiting tourist numbers, if necessary. This is often an example of careful tourism planning  and sustainable tourism management.

This text by Hyung You Park explains the principles of heritage tourism in more detail.

Negative impacts of cultural tourism

Social change.

Social change is basically referring to changes in the way that society acts or behaves. Unfortunately, there are many changes that come about as a result of tourism that are not desirable.

There are many examples throughout the world where local populations have changed because of tourism. Perhaps they have changed the way that they speak or the way that they dress. Perhaps they have been introduced to alcohol through the tourism industry or they have become resentful of rich tourists and turned to crime. These are just a few examples of the negative social impacts of tourism.

Read also: Business tourism explained: What, why and where

Globalisation and the destruction of preservation and heritage.

Globalisation is the way in which the world is becoming increasingly connected. We are losing our individuality and gaining a sense of ‘global being’, whereby we more and more alike than ever before.

Globalisation is inevitable in the tourism industry because of the interaction between tourists and hosts, which typically come from different geographic and cultural backgrounds. It is this interaction that encourage us to become more alike.

Standardisation and Commercialisation

Similarly, destinations risk standardisation in the process of satisfying tourists’ desires for familiar facilities and experiences.

While landscape, accommodation, food and drinks, etc., must meet the tourists’ desire for the new and unfamiliar, they must at the same time not be too new or strange because few tourists are actually looking for completely new things (think again about the toilet example I have previously).

Tourists often look for recognisable facilities in an unfamiliar environment, like well-known fast-food restaurants and hotel chains. Tourist like some things to be standardised (the toilet, their breakfast, their drinks, the language spoken etc), but others to be different (dinner options, music, weather, tourist attractions etc).

Loss of Authenticity 

Along similar lines to globalisation is the loss of authenticity that often results from tourism.

Authenticity is essentially something that is original or unchanged. It is not fake or reproduced in any way.

The Western world believe that a tourist destination is no longer authentic when their cultural values and traditions change. But I would argue is this not natural? Is culture suppose to stay the same or it suppose to evolve throughout each generation? 

Take a look at the likes of the long neck tribe in Thailand or the Maasai Tribe in Africa. These are two examples of cultures which have remained ‘unchanged’ for the sole purpose of tourism. They appear not to have changed the way that they dress, they way that they speak or the way that they act in generations, all for the purpose of tourism.

You can learn more about what is authenticity in tourism here or see some examples of staged authenticity in this post.

Culture clashes

Because tourism involves movement of people to different geographical locations cultural clashes can take place as a result of differences in cultures, ethnic and religious groups, values, lifestyles, languages and levels of prosperity.

Read also: Environmental impacts of tourism

The attitude of local residents towards tourism development may unfold through the stages of euphoria, where visitors are very welcome, through apathy, irritation and potentially antagonism when anti-tourist attitudes begin to grow among local people. This is represented in Doxey’s Irritation Index, as shown below.

Tourist-host relationships

Culture clashes can also be exasperated by the fundamental differences in culture between the hosts and the tourists.

There is likely to be economic inequality between locals and tourists who are spending more than they usually do at home. This can cause resentment from the hosts towards the tourists, particularly when they see them wearing expensive jewellery or using plush cameras etc that they know they can’t afford themselves.

Further to this, tourists often, out of ignorance or carelessness, fail to respect local customs and moral values. 

There are many examples of ways that tourists offend the local population , often unintentionally. Did you know that you should never put your back to a Buddha? Or show the sole of your feet to a Thai person? Or show romantic affection in public in the Middle East?

Cultural tourism destinations

Whilst many would argue that cultural tourism is ingrained to some extent in travel to any country, there are some particular destinations that are well-known for their ability to provide tourists with a cultural experience.

Cultural tourism in India

It is impossible not to visit India and experience the culture. Even if you are staying in a 5 star Western all-inclusive hotel in Goa, you will still test Indian curries, be spoken to by Indian workers and see life outside of the hotel on your transfer to and from the airport.

For most people who travel to India, however, cultural tourism is far more than peeking outside of the enclave tourism bubble of their all-inclusive hotel.

Thousands of international tourists visit the Taj Mahal each year. Many more people visit the various Hindu and Buddhist temples scattered throughout the country as well as the various Mosques. Some visit the famous Varanassi to learn about reincarnation.

Most tourists who visit India will try the local dal, eat the fresh mutton and taste chai.

All of these activities are popular cultural tourism activities.

Cultural tourism in Thailand

Thailand is another destination that offers great cultural tourism potential. From the Buddhist temples and monuments and the yoga retreats to homestays and village tours, there are ample cultural tourism opportunities in Thailand .

Cultural tourism in Israel

Israel is popular with religious tourists and those who are taking a religious pilgrimage, as well as leisure tourists. I visited Israel and loved travelling around to see the various sights, from Bethlehem to Jerusalem . I’m not religious in any way, but I loved learning about the history, traditions and cultures.

Cultural tourism in New York

New York is a city that is bustling with culture. It is world famous for its museums and you can learn about anything from World War Two to the Twin Towers here.

Many would argue that shopping is ingrained in the culture of those who live in New York and many tourists will take advantage of the wide selection of products on offer and bargains to be had on their travels to New York.

You can also treat yourself to watching a traditional West End show, trying some of the famous New York Cheesecake and enjoying a cocktail in Times Square!

Cultural tourism in Dubai

Dubai might not be the first destination that comes to mind when you think of cultural tourism, but it does, in fact, have a great offering.

What I find particular intriguing about Dubai is the mix of old and new. One minute you can be exploring the glitz and glamour of the many high-end shopping malls and skyscrapers and the next you can be walking through a traditional Arabian souk.

Cultural tourism: Conclusion

As you can see, there is big business in cultural tourism. With a wide range of types of cultural tourists and types of cultural tourism experiences, this is a tourism sector that has remarkable potential. However, as always, it is imperative to ensure that sustainable tourism practices are utilised to mitigate any negative impacts of cultural tourism.

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Further reading

Want to learn more about cultural tourism? See my recommended reading list below.

• Cultural Tourism – A textbook illustrating how heritage and tourism goals can be integrated in a management and marketing framework to produce sustainable cultural tourism. 
• Deconstructing Travel: Cultural Perspectives on Tourism – This book provides an easily understood framework of the relationship between travel and culture in our rapidly changing postmodern, postcolonial world.
• Re-Investing Authenticity: Tourism, Place and Emotions – This ground-breaking book re-thinks and re-invests in the notion of authenticity as a surplus of experiential meaning and feeling that derives from what we do at/in places.
• The Business of Tourism Management – an introduction to key aspects of tourism, and to the practice of managing a tourism business. 
• Managing Sustainable Tourism – tackles the tough issues of tourism such as negative environmental impact and cultural degradation, and provides answers that don’t sacrifice positive economic growth.
• Tourism Management: An Introduction – An introductory text that gives its reader a strong understanding of the dimensions of tourism, the industries of which it is comprised, the issues that affect its success, and the management of its impact on destination economies, environments and communities.
• Responsible Tourism: Using tourism for sustainable development – A textbook about the globally vital necessity of realising sustainable tourism.

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Integrating Culture and Tourism: A Resilient Scale for Digital Transformation Innovation

• Published: 22 January 2024

Cite this article

• Chun-Yi Lin 1 ,
• Chen Li 1 ,
• Sadaf Mahmood 2 ,
• Feng Guo 3 &
• Zuoyi Qian 3  

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Industries are actively embracing digital transformation for innovative development in the rapidly changing landscape of the global digital economy. Despite digital transformation’s widespread uptake in sectors like manufacturing and information services, it still lacks clear guidelines and measurement standards in the cultural tourism sector. Addressing this gap, China’s Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, in its 14th Five-Year Plan, introduced four fundamental frameworks for digital transformation: digital industrialization, industrial digitalization, digital governance, and data value appreciation. However, the content and dimensions of measurements needed by these frameworks are missing. This study used a strong methodology to fill this void and aid in the efficient implementation of policies by analyzing 3082 literature samples, soliciting input from experts, and verifying the results statistically through 109 questionnaires. The final all-encompassing framework includes 4 aspects, 13 dimensions, and 22 factors, measured across 98 measurement factors and 16 dimensions. The findings of the study provide credible analytical tools for digital innovation and transformation, highlight academic support for the government’s digital transformation framework, and shed light on the government’s governance framework from academic and industry perspectives. Furthermore, it introduces a diagnostic instrument for measuring digital transformation in service industries, particularly in cultural tourism, validates the practical application value of the triple helix theory, and provides quantifiable instruments for global digital transformation in the cultural tourism industry. The results highlight the global applicability of the Chinese government’s frameworks for digital transformation.

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This work was supported by the Fujian Provincial Social Science Foundation (grant numbers FJ2022T020).

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Lin, CY., Li, C., Mahmood, S. et al. Integrating Culture and Tourism: A Resilient Scale for Digital Transformation Innovation. J Knowl Econ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-024-01753-y

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Social and Cultural Impact of Tourism

Social and Cultural Impact of Tourism: Tourism industry in the 21 st  century is witnessing unprecedented growth and it catalyses social progress and cultural revival while acting as an engine for income and employment generation.  

Tourism is bringing great benefits to destinations world over and has become an instrument for poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Propoor tourism, volunteerism, indigenous tourism and several other neo-age forms have indeed revolutionized the socio-cultural undercurrents pertaining to the all-round development of tourism destinations. Impact of Tourism

Know more about Tourism Status Worldwide

Let us consider how tourism paves way for social harmony and cultural revitalization.

Basically there are four types of impact of tourism .

Social Impact of Tourism. 

The power of tourism in breathing new life into dying cultural expression has been widely recognized. Moreover, tourism has the capacity to nourish the social values and other dimensions through greater appreciation and sharing.

i)                    Positive Impacts.

A.       all inclusive characteristics. .

Tourism is no more the privilege of a chosen few who prefers just the luxurious components of the industry. The tourist market globally configures very diverse segments encompassing geographical background, demographics categories, and the like.

It is not only the exclusive women group travelers who have become globetrotters and ventures to visit the exotic havens of the world; solo woman travelers are also going places in the current era.    

Social tourism is yet another form of tourism that brings people with limited means to the mainstream pradding them to visit and enjoy tourism destinations. M. Hunziker at the Second Congress of Social Tourism held at Vienna and Salzburg in 1959 proposed the following definition:

“Social tourism is a type of tourism practiced by low income groups, and which is rendered possible and facilitated by entirely separate and therefore easily recognizable services. This form of tourism helps people with limited budget travel with assistance from NGO’s incentives and schemes under budget travel extended by the public system of tourism, and discounts offered by the private sector agencies.

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b.       Social Stability and Peace. 

Tourism provides sufficient impetus for people-to-people interaction, which is part and parcel of the Track-II Diplomacy.  This diplomacy constitutes cultural relations not at the government level, but at the level of the common citizens of countries.

Tourism fosters social stability by instilling noble ideas and free thoughts thorough healthy interactions and various other transactions between the hosts and the guests wherein both are benefited.  It broadens the mind of people and as a result, there is increased acceptance, mutual trust, and more tolerance.  These factors contribute profusely towards strengthening social stability and world peace.

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c.        Appreciation of Social Norms, Values, and Practices

Sociologists categorically printout that as tourists visit several nations and regions and get back to their respective countries their vibes in appreciating own countries and regions become very profound.

It is indicated that tourists tend to see their countries in a newer light and value tremendously the intricate aspects of their social customs and practices. Another dimension here is that when tourists see better practices in the areas they visit, there is dire enthusiasm built up in them to introduce implement it in their own places.

d.       The Educative Value and Social Upliftment.

Tourism is in a way education without classrooms. The interpersonal learning developed during interactions between the tourists and the host community is certainly an enriching experience for both the parties. 

       The new vision acquired as a result of different engagements with tourism – as tourist, local community, employer or employee will definitely have positive reflections on the society as well.  There will be more refinement in the social processes and lifestyle practices.

Outdated and irrational traditionally acquired tendencies are replaced with progressive ideals and activities. Also, the real sense of modernity is captured and nurtured through tourism which is deemed to have made the world a ‘global village’. When the niceties are imbibed by societies and hazardous practices are disowned and discarded, it will culminate in social upliftment.

e.        Contribution to Social Capital. 

Tourism ushers social progress in manifold ways. In addition to the advancements made in the sphere of infrastructure and superstructure, destinations experience immense growth as regards educational institutions, health centers, pollution control systems, intensive security, cultural institutions, etc.

Social welfare measures receive excellent impetus as a result of tourism making a mark in the destination. Enhanced livelihood sustenance programmes have gained grounds in many a tourist centre as an offshoot of such measures. Artisans are trained to improve the quality of their works. Impact of Tourism

Social enterprises including rehabilitation centres, de-addiction centres, product innovation &amp; development institutions, and local empowerment agencies are having a productive time due to the regular influx of tourists and the genuine interest taken by voluntary tourists and other stakeholders. The local handicrafts and emporiums get ample thrust with respect to the marketing support from tourism promoters both in the private and public sectors.

ii) Negative Impacts .

A.       degeneration of tourism centres. .

Tourism is an avenue misused and exploited by antisocial elements. Tourists are unfortunately being targeted by those elements and they become easy victims of crime.  It is the responsibility of the local communities to properly guide the tourists in such a way so as to avoid dangerous places and areas.

Owing to the prostitution, child abuse, drug trafficking, robbery and sexual assault on tourists, the image of many destinations have been eroded. The brand takes a beating when there is degeneration of destinations because of the crimes committed there.

b.       Resentment and Hospitality of the Host Population.

Resentment of tourists by the host population as described by Doxey’s Irridex (Irritation Index) is found in some destinations. There are several reasons attributed to the host quest conflicts. One main reason is the sharing of local facilities and resources.

When tourists start using the same resources which the host population feels that are meant for them the spurt in conflict arise. This gets even more serious in the case of resources’ crunch. The local communities attribute the problem to the tourists. 

c.        Demonstration Effect.

This is a very serious effect as the consequences could be far-reaching. When certain members of the host community get enchanted by the lifestyle of the tourists and start aping/ imitating them at the cost of their own social mores and cultural dispositions, the local culture and values suffer.

There is some kind of erosion of values as the host community members, particularly the youngsters discard their social standing and etiquettes and start following the tourists’ activities. The foundation of the society itself is shaken. Now a day’s hosts start following the dressing pattern and fashion of tourists in many destinations.

d.       Human Rights Abuse.

Exploitation of the local community by tourists is increasing day by day. As criminals and other miscreants enter, the tourism destinations in the garb of tourists, the crimes committed goes overboard. They start exploiting the host community by cheaper means.   Sexual abuse, narcoticism, smuggling, poaching, etc., are rampant in many wildlife tourism destinations and hill stations. Such nefarious elements throw the rules and regulations in the wind and act according to their whims and fancies.

Another side of the problem is the displacement of the local population when their lands are taken over the tourism development. They are evicted from their lands without proper rehabilitation measures being initiated. In the name of life seeing tourism , which brings tourists face to face with the host society too, several exploitative practices are in vogue.

e.        Antagonism of Hosts.   

When there is unwanted noise, congestion, drunkenness, voyeurism, gambling, rowdiness and other excesses occurring in tourism centres, it results in antagonism by the hosts.

Fig. 1 Doxey’s Irridex – 4 Stages

Antagonism in this sense means an expression of open enmity towards the tourists by the hosts.

e.        Issues Linked to Standard of Living. 

Excessive tourism development can bring about undesirable social effects and at the same time, there is quick money for some quarters, which increase their standard of living. If there is no equity in terms of affluence due to tourism , there are chances for the occurrence of internal strife within the host community.

f.         Employment Issues.

Tourism projects are flourishing expansively. The sanction of tourism projects comes with a tag of ensuring jobs for the host population. When the vacancies are filled by job seekers from other regions or when the expertise is being imported from distant places, the local community starts objecting to the proceedings of the tourism enterprises.

g.       Identity Crisis.

When more and more tourists visit a destination, the inherent social fabric of the community gets affected and eventually loses its identity too.

Cultural Impact of Tourism.

The lifestyle changes at the places of tourist importance are quite encouraging. At the same time, planners have to mitigate the consequences of demonstration effect.

i)  Positive Impact of Tourism.

A.  revitalization of cultural symbols..

One of the main purpose of tourism is to foster understanding and appreciation of other cultures, peoples, and places. Another worthy aim of tourism is to exchange knowledge and ideas.   Through cultural tourism the experiential dynamics of the visitors is elevated without the cultural elements, every destination is just a place and in no way can stimulate the tourists. In that sense, culture becomes the main attraction of tourism.  

Development of cultural factors within a destination is a primary means of enhancing the products to attract tourists.  It also creates a favorable image of the tourism centre among tourists, both foreign and domestic. The cultural channels help in the presentation of the destination.

Fig.2. Major Cultural Symbols Promoted as part of Tourism

It is a fact that due to tourism scores of art and cultural forms are being preserved across the globe. Many a dying cultural form is being revived to be showcased for tourists.   If not for tourism , several cultural expressions would have vanished forever. Tourism also creates avenues for the artists and artisans to stage/depict their creative performances.

b.       Cultural Relations and International Co-Operation. 

Tourism plays a signature role in promoting cultural relations and forging international co-operation. Cultural organisations across the world are making their presence felt owing to the impetus provided by tourism. In the present day, tourism is instrumental in the inception of several cultural institutions. Plenty of cultural exchange programmes are being organised at the global level, thanks to tourism . This point out that tourism is intertwined with the cultural relations policies of many nations.

c.        Promotion of Cultural Values. 

When tourism supports cultural values, attitude, and behavior of the host communities in various destinations, one can observe that there is finest hospitality and service excellence.   The host communities take pride in their cultural traditions. Tourism serves as a driving force to restore cultural vibrancy and attributes of the local population.  On a similar vein, visitors also enriched after experiencing the cultural heritage and value systems in the destinations.

d.       Economic Value of Cultural Sites. 

Any cultural auditing will unveil the economic advantages of protecting and maintaining a cultural site. For example, there are lots of caves which are astounding tourism attractions. If it would have been left uncared for destruction, the revenue sources are being blocked.  Similar is the case with most of the cultural manifestations. To point out yet another economic merit of cultural events, to attract tourists, the world over, different unique cultural programmes are offered as per a stipulated calendar during which tourists are drawn in hordes. 

e.        Cultural Tourism and Income Generation.

Tourism contributes to the welfare of the local community in manifold ways.  When fairs and festivals are rejuvenated to amuse the tourists, the host population is able to be performers or spectators of the events. Tourism also acts as an incentive to curb migration. The cultural programmes and revived monuments increase the inflow of tourists due to which plenty of business opportunities shall arise in the tourist places. This will improve their job and earning prospects. Apart of income generation, another benefit linked to cultural tourism is the raise in covertness of the significance of cultural artifacts and activities.  

By organizing special interest tours to ruins, caves and other historical sites including the tombs of well-known personalities such as martyrs, litterateurs, etc. The host community can earn a good income. The members of the local population can also act as guides and facilitators. Selling antiques and souvenir articles to tourists is another source of income.

ii) Negative Impact of Tourism:

A.         commoditisation of culture. .

Cultural artifacts and events woo the tourists and they take great interest in enjoying them. Sometimes, the destination promoters are neglecting the richness of the cultural masterpieces and treating them as mere products or resources to invigorate the tourists. This happens even with deep-rooted traditional art forms. For the sake of formulating the art forms and artefacts as products to amuse the tourists, a lot of compromises are taking place.

b.         Loss of Authenticity.

This is another related negative impact. In the name of entertainment of tourists, a lot of maneuvering and orchestration are dome with various cultural forms. There are tampering and mutilations happening with respect to indigenous cultural expressions of profound importance. In the process, the authenticity is being lost. Fake products are crafted and packages as genuine cultural artefacts. The tourists in a way are cheated and such tendencies from the destination promotes can eventually rebound wherein through negative word of mouth publicity the destination image will suffer. Staged authenticity or stage-managing the art forms for tourist’s enjoyment does not necessarily bring the desired results.

c.          Disrespect of Local Customs.

Tourists are expected to respect local customs, codes, manners, and observances. When they violate the beliefs and values due to attitudinal problems or sheer carelessness, it leads to conflicts. The irresponsible conduct of tourists at the destination by engaging in littering, drug trafficking, irritable behavior, hooliganism, animosity towards hosts, etc. can hamper the relationship between the hosts and the guests. The moral and standard set at the destination should be regarded highly. Impact of Tourism

d.         Museumisation of Culture.

As part of ethnic tourism, which promotes intimate contact the indigenous community, nowadays special tours are being arranged to their habitats. This is a tight rope walk as the tours can be construed as an intrusion into the privacy of the native habitats. The live cultural aspects of tourists, for example, husking, weaving, fishing using traditional methods, etc. are appropriate to be showcased for tourism though the exactitude of the programmes needs to be ascertained meticulously.

e.          Fashion and Obscene Conduct.

Tourism centres will have many traditional concepts as regards the dress codes for the people both visitors and the locals. In the name of fashion and modernity, tourists are sometimes found to overlook the etiquettes followed in the destination. Their fashion could be obscene conduct for the host community.

f.           Food Observances.

Tourists cannot always expect the food items they have in their own native or other centres at the destination. Some cuisine may be taboo and tourists leaking them out of excitement can offend the native populace.

g.         Child Labour and Child Sex Tourism.

This is a cultural hazard due to fast-paced tourism growth. One can find an army of children doing menial jobs in restaurant, hotels, wayside amenities, and other outlets. Sexual exploitation of children who perform art forms for entertaining the tourists is also on the rise.

   The Socio-Cultural Considerations in Tourism Planning.

The planners must necessarily take into account the following socio-cultural perspectives while planning tourism ventures.

a.       Standardization of Tourism Projects.

The license to operate tourism projects may be awarded only after the confirmation of the factors listed below:

i)                   The signing of agreements to recruit a good percentage of local community members.

ii)                 The project shall abide by local cultural norms and practices and is not violating them by any means.

iii)               No child labour in the establishment.

iv)               Will take adequate measures, to curb prostitution, drug menace, gambling, smuggling, drunkenness, betting, and any other illegal activities.

v)                  Shall strictly sell authentic products.

b.       Planned and Controlled Tourism Development. 

Unplanned and uncontrolled tourism development is resulting in the deterioration of the socio-cultural strands of the destinations. For example, the construction of buildings for resorts and hotels flouting the local traditional architectural norms, using the raw materials and architectural style not in sync with the backdrop of the place causes visual pollution. Tourism planners must consult the local community members for any initiative and make them part of the decision-making process. This will enhance their pride and instill confidence in the cultural traditions. The bearing of demonstration effects can be offset by such efforts.

c.        Preservation of Cultural Sites.

Vandalism, graffiti writing, and destruction are depreciating the priceless cultural heritage of humanity. These losses are irreparable and irreversible. The future of tourism is heavily dependent on applying brakes to the bulldozer-laden culture, which is negating the invaluable cultural monuments and historical attractions. Even leads for enacting laws and strengthening existing acts like the ancient monuments and archaeological remains act could be given sufficient impetus. Impact of Tourism

d.       Diversification of Tourism Products for Budget and Accessible Tourists.

The creation of new tourism products to suit the requirements of budget and accessible tourists will certainly be a welcome move. The inception of barrier-free tourism infrastructure offers fillip to the social sensitivities of any destination. For example, disabled tourists would not be able to enjoy the vantage points of a hill station without the usage of a cable car.

e.        Synergy between Tourism Stakeholders and Cultural Institutions.

More efforts to foster the effective coordination between tourism stakeholders in private and public sector, and prominent cultural institutions can go a long way in intensifying tourism promotion. Tourists will get chances interact with the exponents of famous art forms such as Mohiniyattom, Kathakali, and Ottan Thullal. Tourism officials can take a lead role in organizing training workshops and symposiums for rural artisans, craftsmen, weavers, painters, and performing artists.

f.         Tourism Amenities.

It is almost necessary that tourism destination appoints guides, lifeguards and tourism police. Authorized guides trained to disseminate authentic information on the historic centres and heritage attractions can enhance the appeal of the facets of culture in the place. The presence of tourism police can control the damages caused by reckless miscreants to the monuments. 

g.       Marketing Support of Souvenir Articles.

Tourists are always on the lookout for the memorabilia they can take home which stall trigger the memories of their visitations to tourist places. Brass ware, metal wares, mirror works, apparels, leather products handmade paper products, etc. are sought after souvenir articles. Traditional workers make these articles indigenously. If the promoters can chip in with the marketing expertise, the demand for the mind-blowing souvenir artefacts would spruce-up. Impact of Tourism

h.       Integration of Policy and Planning.

The socio – cultural dimensions of tourism can be nurtured and productively nourished by the proper and systematic integration of policy and planning in a time bound fashion. The enamoring aspects of both society and culture can be the best showcased when packaged as tourist attractions. The action plan for cultural tourism development must take these into account. Similar is the case with social welfare and upliftment.

The allocation of fiscal grants and aids to artists and artisans is central to the revival and continuance of many a traditional art forms and handicrafts. The source identification and streamlining of the tracks and mechanics involved in the distribution of funds are to be jointly discussed between tourism and cultural stakeholders. Impact of Tourism

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Backpacking

Benefits of Tourism to various stakeholders

Social and cultural impacts

When we travel we consume places and local cultures. That can happen with more or less interaction with the local population. Maybe you only get to meet the hotel and restaurant staff? The influx of temporary visitors with other goals and means than the local population (see Behaviour on holiday ) affects the local community and its inhabitants’ quality of life and culture, in the short and long term. Where tourism has grown exponentially many different positive and negative impacts have been noted, and the greater the dependence on tourism the community has, the more inclined locals and the local tourist industry are to change local traditions and lifestyles to adapt to tourists’ needs. 

Local populations’ reactions to increased tourism occur in different ways. They have different strategies to adapt their day to day life around tourists. Some embrace development wholeheartedly. These are often locals with a connection to the tourism industry. Others create barriers , in other words they keep their distance from tourists and rarely interact. Locals might avoid touristy squares and streets. Other distancing strategies are withdrawal involving removing themselves completely from the area during the tourist season. Maybe you have another place to move to for the time being. An extreme strategy, appearing recently in Barcelona and Venice, for instance, is opposition . In this case tourism has affected their life quality very negatively, and the volume of tourism is so extreme that the local population demonstrate or act violently against tourism actors.

In a review of earlier research, Australian researchers listed the potential positive and negative impacts from a social perspective. In the table below is a selection of the most prominent:

It’s important to take into account potential social and cultural impacts when planning for tourism. Often the focus is on tourism as a tool for socio-economic development (money and jobs), but a majority of local residents more often come into direct contact with the impacts listed in the table above. The impacts are more obvious in less rural communities and in destinations where the distances (cultural, economic, powerful, etc.) between tourists and local residents are greater. 

Sources: Ap, J., & Crompton, J. L. (1993). Residents' Strategies for Responding to Tourism Impacts. Journal of Travel Research, 32(1), 47-50.  Deery, M., Jago, L., & Fredline, L. (2012). Rethinking social impacts of tourism research: A new research agenda. Tourism Management, 33(1), 64-73 Hunt, E. (2017, August 4). ‘Tourism kills neighbourhoods’: how do we save cities from the city break? The Guardian. www.theguardian.com. Lundberg, E. (2014). Tourism Impacts and Sustainable Development. Gothenburg: University of Gothenburg.  

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Research on the Integration of Cultural Tourism Industry Driven by Digital Economy in the Context of COVID-19—Based on the Data of 31 Chinese Provinces

Xiangyin li.

1 School of Chinese Language and Culture, Zhejiang Yuexiu University, Shaoxing, China

2 Shaoxing Culture and Tourism Industry Research Institute, Zhejiang Yuexiu University, Shaoxing, China

Xueping Liang

3 School of Economics, Tianjin University of Commerce, Tianjin, China

4 Institute of International Education, New Era University College, Kajang, Malaysia

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

This article examines the impact of digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry in the context of COVID-19 by measuring the integration degree of cultural tourism industry as a substitute variable of cultural tourism integration. The empirical study found that the development of digital economy during the COVID-19 pandemic did promote the integration of China's cultural tourism industry, and compared with year 2019, the digital economy has strengthened the integration of cultural tourism industry. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the development of digital economy has promoted the integration of China's cultural tourism industry, and the positive effect of digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry has gradually strengthened compared to previous ones. The digital economy has played a mediating role in the impact of COVID-19 on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry. Therefore, China should formulate macropolicies and digital economy-related policies to strengthen the ability of digital economy to deal with risks and improve the digital system.

Research Background and Literature Review

COVID-19 broke out in Wuhan in December 2019 and spread across the country at a breakneck speed. As of August 29, 2021, the number of confirmed cases in China has reached 151,122,891. The outbreak of COVID-19 has brought a huge impact on the cultural and tourism industry, especially the film industry, tourism industry, travel agencies, entertainment industry, cruise industry, and tourism transportation. With the rapid spread of COVID-19, China's overall loss scale may be stronger than that of SARS, but the loss proportion is smaller, mainly due to the emergence of the digital economy, which provides a new way for the integration of cultural tourism industry ( 1 ).

Integration of Cultural Tourism Industry

At present, scholars all over the world have different emphases on cultural tourism industry integration. Foreign scholars pay more attention to the choice of the integration path of the cultural and tourism industry. Addo ( 2 ) stressed the importance and necessity of European heritage and cultural diversity for Ghana's tourism industry. To promote the economic development of domestic tourism, tourism facilities should be improved and products should be diversified through innovation, so as to integrate cultural industry with tourism industry. Through factor analysis and reliability test, Hung ( 3 ) and other foreign scholars extracted five motivation factors, namely novelty, exploration, family reunion, restoration of balance, and socialization, to study the motivation of festival tourists and put forward that festival has become one of the fastest growing tourism modes. The research of Ling ( 4 ) shows that festival events are increasingly becoming an important tool for economic development, not only through tourism, but also by rebranding cities and regions as modern cultural centers. Krakowiak (2014) introduced the potential and importance of Museums in Poland in cultural tourism, which plays an important role in driving the tourism economy. Juzefovič ( 5 ) studied creative tourism from the perspective of philosophy, sociology, and communication and proposed that innovative tourism is a new generation of tourism. This new type of tourism no longer manipulates and develops cultural, personal, and natural resources such as traditional tourism, but adds value and enriches cultural, personal, and natural resources.

The research of domestic scholars on the integration of cultural tourism industry mainly focuses on the relationship, integration mechanism, and integration barriers among cultural tourism industries. Taking Yichang as the research object, Cao et al. ( 6 ) deeply analyzed the mutual promotion and integration of cultural tourism industries. Zhao ( 7 ) believes tourism and culture complement each other. The openness of tourism enables it to receive cultural indoctrination, and the permeability of culture enables it to transcend the boundary of industry and establish integration with tourism. This, Bao and Wang ( 8 ), Zhang ( 9 ), Feng ( 10 ), and Li and Weng ( 11 ), used quantitative methods to quantitatively study the integration relationship between cultural industries using methods such as coupling coordination degree and Herfindahl index method. Zhang ( 12 ) believes that external environment is the main reason driving the integration of cultural and tourism industry, such as diplomatic relations, government policies, and consumer's demand. Zhao ( 7 ) believes that the inherent characteristics of cultural industry and tourism, such as the openness and permeability of the tourism industry, are the main driving force for the integration of the cultural and tourism industry and the internal driving force for the sustainable development of the cultural and tourism industry. In addition, Wang and Wu ( 13 ) proposed in his research that the growth of the population's demand for spiritual civilization is the fundamental driving force for the comprehensive development of cultural tourism industry.

Zhuang ( 14 ) qualitatively analyzed the driving effect of cultural and tourism industry integration on regional economic development, social progress, and construction of spiritual civilization. Shi ( 15 ) believes that the integration of cultural and tourism industry deepens the connotation of tourism on the one hand, expands the market of cultural industry on the other hand, and provides impetus for the development of other related industries. Huo ( 16 ) put forward four positive effects in her research: the integration of cultural tourism industry will improve the independent innovation ability of the region, strengthen market competitiveness, drive consumer demand, and facilitate regional integration. However, Shi ( 17 ) found in the process of studying the integration of Sichuan's cultural and tourism industry that the integration of cultural tourism industry has great advantages. On the one hand, it can enrich cultural tourism products and open up new markets. On the other hand, it can save the operation cost of the two major industries, realize the value-added of the industrial chain, and bring innovation to the organization and management.

Integration of COVID-19 and Cultural Tourism Industry

Cui ( 18 ) believes that COVID-19 has a great impact on the cultural tourism industry, but it is not a devastating blow. The integration of cultural and tourism industry has the following advantages: consumption advantage, industrial advantage, and economic advantage. The consumption of culture and tourism has become the basic needs of the people; In addition, the productivity system of the cultural tourism industry has not been seriously damaged in the COVID-19 pandemic. Service facilities such as hotels, B&Bs, scenic spots, large restaurants, tourism transportation facilities, museums, tourism performances, cultural and creative industries, cinemas, and online tourism have not disappeared, and even the productivity level has not been substantially reduced. Our economy is now on the upswing, and consumers have plenty of spending power, and obviously, we can expect that once the epidemic disappears, these stockpiles of physical and psychological demand will rebound strongly. If not all of the damage, at least a large part of our economy will be restored. Deng et al. ( 19 ) and others conducted in-depth analysis of the impact of the epidemic on the cultural tourism industry from the perspectives of demand and supply. To find a breakthrough for the revitalization of the cultural tourism industry, they proposed that for the revitalization of the cultural tourism industry after the epidemic, government support at the macrolevel, industrial linkage at the medium level, and enterprise development at the microlevel should be combined for coordinated development. Yuan's ( 20 ) research shows that the impact of COVID-19 on the cultural and tourism industry varies in different periods. In the short term, the impact of COVID-19 will continue for some time. The state's support for medium, small, and microcultural and tourism enterprises should gradually shift from simple financial subsidies to reducing operating costs, so as to ensure the operation of medium, small, and microcultural and tourism enterprises and avoid layoffs to cut costs, resulting in a large number of unemployment. In the medium term, the government can promote government-enterprise cooperation. Cultural and tourism enterprises can develop digital content products. The government can establish a “cultural cloud” platform for integration and then connect with professional publicity companies to achieve a win–win situation. In the long run, cultural competitiveness can be enhanced by building representative cultural brands. This shows that the government has taken various measures to revitalize the cultural and tourism industry, which has been hit hard by the epidemic.

Chinese scholars have also put forward different policy recommendations for the recovery of the cultural tourism industry after COVID-19. Yao ( 21 ) believes that first of all, we should reduce taxes and fees for the cultural tourism industry, increase investment and capital introduction, enhance the transformation of characteristic culture and service infrastructure in scenic spots, and enhance project construction. It is also pointed out that the ideological transformation of people and the digital transformation of various industries during the epidemic period provide an opportunity for the integration of cultural tourism industry. Jiang et al. ( 22 ) proposed that the government should encourage the joint operation of cultural and tourism industry to increase the ability to resist risks. At the same time, it is also necessary to promote the construction of “5G+ smart tourism,” build a smart cultural tourism ecosystem, promote innovation with technology, focus on the integration of “science and technology + cultural tourism,” accelerate the digital transformation of the cultural and tourism industry based on 5G and artificial intelligence new technology, create diversified cultural and tourism products, and improve the supply structure of cultural and tourism. Zhong ( 23 ) proposed that the way to promote the integration of culture and tourism through culture and tourism consumption is to implement appropriate subsidies for consumption, tax and fee reduction, and other measures. The second way is through the digital economy to promote industrial upgrading, cultural tourism development at the same time in the form of “big data + consumption subsidy,” so as to promote to build big platform—“brigade cloud” data analysis and decision system, set up including consumer's attributes, big data, such as position and consumer's preferences to achieve precise subsidies, and also play a multiplier effect on consumption.

Based on the above analysis, this article proposes hypotheses 1 and 2:

• H1:COVID-19 has negatively impacted the integration of China's cultural tourism industry in the short term
• H2:COVID-19 has had a long-term positive impact on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry

Integration of Digital Economy and Cultural Tourism Industry

The impact of COVID-19 on China's economy is huge, and the impact on China's cultural tourism industry is also significant. However, with the development of modern information technologies such as 5G, artificial intelligence, and big data, digital economy provides a new way for the integration of China's economy and cultural tourism industry. Xia ( 24 ) shows that with the digital transformation of the industry and the improvement in public service and policy system, the cultural and tourism industry will achieve in-depth integration in a wider range, deeper level, and at a higher level, which will also bring about the transformation of the development mode of the cultural and tourism industry and the development of new formats. Deng et al. ( 19 ) believes that the cultural and tourism industry has been greatly impacted by the epidemic. However, in the context of the rapid development of information technology, the continuous transformation of cultural and tourism industry and the rapid change of tourism market demand, to promote the high-quality development of the industry, we should seize the opportunity of the development of digital economy and constantly improve their digital, network, and intelligent development. Cai and Ding ( 25 ) proposed the integration model of digital economy + cultural and tourism industry based on the investigation of Chengdu. They believe that the digital economy is not only a factor for the transformation and upgrading of the cultural and tourism industry and the elimination of backward production capacity, but also an ecological environment for the future development of the cultural and tourism industry. It puts forward that we should make good preparations at macro-, medium, and microlevels to promote the deep integration of China's cultural and tourism industry and digital economy. At the macrolevel, we should improve the policy system and do a good job in the top-level design; at the medium level, we should strengthen the market subjects and improve the investment and financing channels; at the microlevel, we should optimize the talent structure and strengthen the integration of resources.

Hojeghan ( 26 ) believes that digital economy is no longer limited to commercial trade and services, and the development of digital economy affects various aspects of life, from health to education, from commerce to banking. They propose that digital economy promotes the integration of cultural tourism industry through technological integration. The research of Voronkova ( 27 ) focuses on the new direction of the digital transformation of tourism. Under the impact of COVID-19, consumers are unable to travel and the demand of the tourism industry is seriously insufficient. Tourism digital transformation into virtual tourism can effectively deal with the impact of emergencies. Stelnik ( 28 ) believes that the development of digital economy will greatly improve the efficiency of tourism management and guide the development of tourism enterprises. Bozhuk ( 29 ) studied the current situation of China's tourism industry from the perspective of consumer's behavior. The development of digital economy can effectively identify consumer's needs, thus determining the main direction of tourism transformation under the digital economy.

Based on the above analysis, this article proposes hypothesis 3:

• H3:COVID-19 has had a positive impact on the integration of the cultural tourism industry in the long term through the development of the digital economy

Based on previous studies on the level of integration of COVID-19, digital economy, and cultural tourism industry, scholars generally focused on theoretical research and policy suggestions, and few empirical studies were conducted to explore the connection among the three. Therefore, this article takes 31 provinces of China as the research object to study the impact of digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry in the context of COVID-19.

Measurement of Cultural Tourism Industry Integration

At present, there has not been a unified conclusion on the measurement method of industrial convergence in academia. Some scholars use the Herfindahl index method to measure industrial convergence. In the technology of the Herfindahl index method, the correlation coefficient of technology patents is used to measure, which has great advantages in measuring technology integration. However, at present, there are few patent data related to the cultural tourism industry, and it is difficult to make statistics. Therefore, this article introduces the coupling coordination degree model of cultural tourism industry integration. Since different indicators have different contributions to cultural industry and tourism, this study adopts linear weighting method to comprehensively evaluate cultural industry and tourism, and its formula is as follows

u i represents the comprehensive evaluation value of industry, u ij represents the contribution of indicator J to industry i in this industry, w ij is the weight of index j in system i, and the weight is determined by entropy method.

when u ij is a positive indicator:

when u ij is a negative indicator:

Coupling Coordination Degree Evaluation Model

The degree of coupling coordination is used to measure the degree of integration between cultural industry and tourism. The coupling coordination model is used to calculate the coupling coordination scores of two industries. This is helpful to analyze the coordination level of different industries and provide a theoretical basis for promoting the integrated development of culture and tourism industry. When calculating the interaction between the two industries, the coupling degree is:

where C represents the coupling coordination degree of cultural industry and tourism industry, u 1 , u 2 represent the comprehensive evaluation scores of the two industries, respectively. Coupling of the two industry systems:

D represents the coupling coordination degree of the two industries, and P represents the evaluation index of the comprehensive development level of the two industries. To directly reflect the coupling coordination degree between the cultural industry system and the tourism industry system, this article classifies p -values according to Liao Chongbin and analyzes the coupling coordination level of various provinces and autonomous regions in China on this basis. See Table 1

Division of coupling coordination level.

Index Selection

In the construction of index system, cultural industry and tourism industry cannot be completely separated. Otherwise, it is impossible to give a good explanation of industrial integration. Therefore, in the construction of the index system, we should fully consider the integration of cultural tourism industry and the characteristics of the two industries, and based on the availability of data, consider the industrial scale, industrial benefits, and industrial elements. See Table 2 for details.

Evaluation index system of cultural industry and tourism industry development level.

The weight of each index is calculated by entropy method in this article. The steps of entropy method are as follows:

• (1) Construct the original evaluation matrix: Suppose there are t years, A provinces, and B evaluation indexes, then the original evaluation matrix is X = ( x θ ij ). J = 1,..., b, for example, ( x θ ij ) in the matrix represents the j th index value of province i in year θ in this system.
• (2) Dimensionless processing is carried out for indicators. For positive indicators, formula 7 is adopted, whereas for negative indicators, Formula 8 is adopted. To avoid the occurrence of zero value, each indicator is translated by 0.1 unit after standardization in this article. M θ i j = x θ i j - min j ( x θ i j ) max j ( x θ i j ) - min j ( x θ i j ) + 0 . 1 (7) M θ i j = max j ( x θ i j ) - x θ i j max j ( x θ i j ) - min j ( x θ i j ) + 0 . 1 (8)
• (3) Calculate the proportion of each indicator in the corresponding sample, as shown in Formula 9 p θ i j = M θ i j ∑ j M θ i j (9)

k = - 1 ln   ( n t ) , Where n is the number of research samples and t is the year interval.

• (5) Calculate the weight of each indicator and calculate the comprehensive score, as shown in Formula 11, where w j is the weight of indicator j, w j = g j ∑ j = 1 b g j (11)

The comprehensive score of the calculated results was used as a substitute variable for the integration degree of cultural tourism industry.

Empirical Study

Variable selection, explained variable.

This article uses the coupling coordination degree model to calculate the coupling coordination degree of 31 provinces and autonomous regions in China as the substitute variable CT of the integration level of cultural tourism industry.

Explaining Variable

The definition of digital economy by previous scholars mainly includes two aspects: in terms of form, digital economy is an economic form that guides and realizes the rapid optimal allocation and regeneration of resources and achieves high-quality economic development. At the technological level, digital economy is a collection of emerging technologies including big data, cloud computing, Internet of things, block chain, artificial intelligence, 5G communications, and so on. In the application level, its typical representatives are “new retail,” “new manufacturing,” and so on. According to the definition of digital economy, it is difficult to quantify the digital economy, so this article replaces the digital economy with the digital financial inclusion index used by Guo et al. ( 30 ). Digital financial inclusion index is a comprehensive definition based on the connotation and characteristics of the digital economy, and each index and dimension included should reflect a certain perspective of the overall digital economy [20]. See Table 3 for specific index system construction.

Index system of digital economy.

The comprehensive score of digital economy of each province was calculated by entropy method as explanatory variable.

For COVID-19, the number of confirmed cases or deaths is generally used as explanatory variables in the literature on impact analysis. As a measure of epidemic severity, the number of confirmed COVID-19 cases in 31 provinces of China was selected as an explanatory variable.

Control Variable

In this article, urbanization level, industrialization level, foreign direct investment, and advanced industrial structure level are selected as control variables. The ratio of resident population to the total area of each region in the current year is used to indicate the local urbanization level; the number of industrial enterprises above designated size in each region is used to measure the local industrialization level; foreign direct investment to measure foreign direct investment; the ratio of the total output value of the tertiary industry and the total output value of the secondary industry measures the level of advanced industrial structure. Relevant data are from the statistical yearbook of each province.

Model Specification

Based on the above selection of explanatory variables, explained variables, and control variables, this article establishes a multiple linear regression model to explore the direct impact of COVID-19 and digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry, and also the indirect impact of digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry during COVID-19. To avoid pseudoregression and eliminate heteroscedasticity in the model, each variable is processed logarithmically to obtain stable data without changing the nature and correlation of time series. The model is processed logarithmically as follows:

Among them, CT represents integration of cultural tourism industry, DE represents digital economy, COV represents COVID-19, FDI represents foreign direct investment, SIZE represents industrialization level, CITY represents city size, and ADV represents advanced industrial structure. α 0 is a constant, and ζ it is a random error term.

Data Sources and Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics of each variable are shown in Table 4 .

Descriptive statistical results of each variable.

According to the descriptive statistics in Table 3 , the average integration degree of cultural tourism industry is 0.429, and the maximum and minimum values are 0.695 and 0.131, respectively. It can be found that the integration level of China's cultural tourism industry is relatively balanced. The average value of digital economy is 5.8, the maximum and minimum values are 6.07 and 5.64, respectively, which indicates that the overall level of digital economy in China is relatively balanced, and there is little difference in investment in digital economy among different regions. The COVID-19 outbreak average was 4.26, and the maximum and minimum values were 11.13 and 0, respectively. With the exception of Hubei province, there is little difference in the number of confirmed COVID-19 cases among provinces and autonomous regions.

According to the descriptive statistical results of control variables, the average value of industrialization level is 1.834, and the maximum and minimum values are 4.182 and −1.064, respectively, indicating that industry in some regions of China has been seriously affected during the epidemic. The average value of urbanization level is 7.664, the maximum and minimum values are 8.749 and 5.225, respectively, indicating that China's urbanization level is relatively balanced. The average value of foreign direct investment is 3.258, the maximum and minimum values are 8.749 and 5.225, respectively, indicating that China's overall level of attracting foreign investment is relatively strong. The average value of industrial structure upgrading is 4.624, and the maximum and minimum values are 6.193 and 3.230, respectively, indicating that the production scale and technological level of industries in some regions are still at a low level.

Positive Economics

The direct impact of covid-19 and digital economy on the integration of china's cultural tourism industry.

Table 5 shows the influence of COVID-19 and digital economy on the integration of cultural tourism in China in Equation (1). The coefficient of digital economy is significantly positive at the level of 1% and shows an increasing trend, indicating that the development of digital economy during the COVID-19 epidemic has indeed promoted the integrated development of China's cultural tourism industry, and the coefficient of digital economy is larger than that in 2019, the initial stage of the epidemic. The coefficient of COVID-19 is significantly negative at the 1% level, with an increasing trend all the time. This indicates that with the outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan in China, it is spreading rapidly to the whole country, and the negative impact on the integration of culture and tourism in China is increasingly strong. This verifies hypothesis H1. The coefficient of the observed square term of COVID-19 is significantly positive at the level of 1%. It shows that COVID-19 has a long-term effect on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry, which presents a U-shaped trend that will promote the integration of cultural tourism industry in the long run, which verifies hypothesis H2.

The direct impact of COVID-19 and digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry.

***, ** and * represent level of significance at 1%, 5% and 10% .

Observing the results of the control variables, it can be seen that the coefficient of industrialization level is significantly positive at the level of 1%, and the promoting effect is significant. The coefficient of urbanization level is significantly positive at the level of 1%, which may be because with the improvement in infrastructure, a solid foundation has been laid for the integration of cultural tourism industry. Foreign direct investment is significantly negative at the level of 10%, which may be due to crowding out the level of domestic investment, the decline of the overall level of domestic investment, and the lack of innovation ability, which also hinders the integrated development of China's cultural tourism industry. The industrialization level is significantly positive at 1% level, which also indicates that the integration of China's cultural tourism industry cannot be separated from the development of industrialization. Under the impact of COVID-19, the industry has been hit hard, and there is an urgent need to develop digital economy, make the industry to intelligent transformation, and promote the integration of China's cultural tourism industry.

Indirect Impact of COVID-19 and Digital Economy on the Level of Integration of China's Cultural Tourism Industry

Table 6 shows the indirect impact of COVID-19 epidemic and digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry in Equation (2). In this result, the crossterm of COVID-19 epidemic and digital economy is focused, and it can be found that the crossterm of COVID-19 epidemic and digital economy is significantly positive at the level of 1% and presents an increasing trend. On the one hand, it proves that the development of digital economy during COVID-19 has promoted the integration of China's cultural tourism industry; on the other hand, it proves that the positive effect of digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry during the COVID-19 pandemic is gradually strengthened compared to previous ones. By observing the coefficients of COVID-19 and digital economy, it can be seen that, by comparing the coefficients of COVID-19 and digital economy in Table 5 , the significance of the coefficients of explanatory variables in Table 6 remains unchanged, but the coefficients decrease slightly, which also proves that digital economy plays an intermediary role in the process of COVID-19 affecting the integration of China's cultural tourism industry.

Indirect impact of COVID-19 and digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry.

By observing the coefficients of the control variables, it can be seen that on the premise of invariable significance, the coefficients are all reduced to varying degrees. This shows that the impact of COVID-19 on the digital economy reduces the impact of other variables on the integration of cultural tourism industry. This further illustrates the importance of the digital economy to restore the integration of China's cultural tourism industry during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Conclusions and Policy Recommendations

Conclusions.

Through empirical research on the direct impact of COVID-19 and digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry, it is found that the development of digital economy during the COVID-19 pandemic has indeed promoted the integration of China's cultural tourism industry, and the digital economy has promoted the integration of China's cultural tourism industry more strongly than in 2019, the initial stage of the epidemic. With the rapid spread of COVID-19 to the whole country after the outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, the negative impact on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry is also increasingly strong. Moreover, COVID-19 has a long-term effect on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry, showing a U-shaped trend, which will promote the integration of cultural tourism industry in the long run.

An empirical study on the indirect impact of COVID-19 and digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry found that the development of digital economy during COVID-19 has promoted the integration of China's cultural tourism industry, and the positive effect of digital economy on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry has gradually strengthened compared to the previous situation. The digital economy has played a mediating role in the impact of COVID-19 on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry.

Policy Recommendations

In view of the conclusions drawn in this article, the following policy recommendations are put forward:

(1) Formulating macropolicies: it is necessary to control the domestic and international trends of the epidemic development, steadily and comprehensively promote the work of domestic economic and social development in the postepidemic period, pay close attention to the development of the global epidemic, and actively plan countermeasures. The central government should formulate policies for the integrated development of China's cultural tourism industry after the epidemic and fully consider the long-term and short-term impacts of COVID-19 on the integration of China's cultural tourism industry. We will give full play to the leading role of fiscal policies. The Ministry of Finance and other departments will jointly put forward supportive policies for stabilizing economic and social development, and relevant departments will cooperate in their implementation. Financial departments at all levels should give full play to the financial advantages of all levels and local governments to provide special interest loans to key epidemic prevention and control enterprises.

(2) Formulating policies related to the digital economy: transform the effective short-term digital economy pilot policies into long-term policies, take “digital industrialization, industrial digitization, and digital governance” as the main line of development, accelerate the upgrading of provincial guidance on accelerating the development of digital economy, and promote the implementation of pilot policies conducive to the development of digital economy. The epidemic has further highlighted the importance and vulnerability of small and medium-size enterprise in China's employment and economic development. Some short-term policies issued by governments at all levels to support the development of small- and medium-sized digital enterprises are considered to be timely and effective after postevaluation and can be transformed into long-term policies based on the coordination and improvement.

(3) To strengthen the capacity of the digital economy to cope with risks: First, in response to the shortcomings exposed in the epidemic response, big data, artificial intelligence, blockchain, smart supply chain, and other technologies are used to enable emergency prevention and control of major public health events and effectively improve the effectiveness of major epidemic prevention and control. Second, we will systematically identify weaknesses in the national reserve system, improve reserve efficiency, optimize the distribution of production capacity of key supplies, and improve contingency plans. Third, based on the vulnerability of the public health governance system exposed by the epidemic, we will comprehensively and thoroughly investigate and rectify similar problems existing in the governance system in other fields, enhance the building of emergency response capacity supported by digital technology, and further establish and improve China's modern public security emergency management system.

(4) Improve the digital system: strengthen talent support, intensify efforts to tackle cutting-edge technologies and train cutting-edge talents, and accelerate the improvement in strategic scientific and technological forces and strategic reserve capacity in the field of epidemic prevention and control and public health. Second, we will accelerate the development of a platform support system for the development of the digital economy. From both the supply side and the demand side, accelerate the construction and promotion of industrial Internet platform and the popularization of the application of industrial Internet for small- and medium-sized enterprises, form a multilevel and systematic platform development system, and promote the connection of all elements of industry and optimal allocation of resources. Third, we will accelerate the improvement of policy and institutional support systems for the development of the digital economy. We will establish and improve policies and regulations that suit the development of digital economy industries, further deepen reform to delegate power, improve regulation and services to promote continuous improvement of the business environment, strengthen oversight over digital transactions, and improve data security systems.

Data Availability Statement

Author contributions.

Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by XLi and XLia. The first draft of the manuscript was written by XLi. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript, contributed to the study conception and design, read, and approved the final manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

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Acknowledgments

Authors thank the financial support from Zhejiang Social Science project, No. 22NDQN284YB.