online travel agencies meaning

What Are OTAs (Online Travel Agencies) and Should You Book With One?

Scott Keyes

August 7, 2023

There are two ways to buy flights online: directly with the airline, or via an online travel agency.

Though buying directly with the airline is self-explanatory, online travel agencies (also known as OTAs) are a bit more complicated. When Going sends our members cheap flights , we typically recommend you book directly with the airline, as there are some clear benefits of doing so, but sometimes we'll point you to an OTA if the fare is significantly cheaper there.

And since one of the top questions travelers have is whether a given OTA is reliable, it’s helpful to understand more about what OTAs are before deciding for yourself if the potential savings are worth it.

What are online travel agencies?

Online travel agencies are companies that sell you flights, online. They act as a middleman between airlines and consumers, though their prices can often be cheaper than booking direct.

Most people are familiar with top OTAs like Expedia , Orbitz , Travelocity , Hopper, and Priceline . There are hundreds, if not thousands, of smaller OTAs as well, and more pop up all the time. Some smaller ones include OneTravel, Kiwi, GotoGate, JustFly, Vayama, Tripsta, TravelMerry, ExploreTrip, Kiss&Fly, Webjet, Travelgenio, Bookairfare, Fareboom, Skybooker, Travel2be, OneTwoTrip!, and eBookers.

How do online travel agencies work?

Online travel agencies work by plugging into a “ global distribution system ,” which is a fancy name for the market where airlines tell distributors what they’re charging for their flights.

When you book directly on an airline’s website, your ticket typically gets issued almost immediately. That’s because the airline is both the seller and provider of the ticket, so it’s rare that their system allows them to sell something they don’t actually have in stock.

With OTAs, especially smaller ones, there’s a delay between when you purchase the ticket and when you’re issued the ticket. That’s because, unlike the airlines, OTAs don’t actually have the tickets they sell. Instead, the OTA is the middleman, connecting customers with airlines and taking a small commission from the airline in the process.

When you click to buy a roundtrip Delta flight from New York to London for $400, what happens is the OTA charges your credit card $400, then turns around and checks with Delta to make sure that ticket is available at that price. This process can take anywhere from a few minutes to 48 hours; each OTA is different and there are a ton of variables impacting transaction time.

But unlike most middlemen, OTAs don’t typically jack up the price. In fact, they usually offer the same price—and often times a lower price—than you’ll find directly with an airline.

Why are fares sometimes cheaper on online travel agencies?

There are a few reasons why OTAs can sometimes offer cheaper fares than booking directly with an airline. They might:

• Sell flights less than cost . OTAs may sell fares for less than they cost, either as a loss leader (in the hopes you’ll book additional add-ons like a hotel or rental car) or in order to accrue market share (hoping you’ll book your next trip with them as well)
• Pass on the commission . Airlines dole out a commission every time a traveler books their flight through an OTA. The OTA, in turn, may pass some or all of that commission on to consumers
• Specific discounts . Airlines regularly negotiate with OTAs to allow them to sell certain flights at a discount. The airline may not want the lower fare broadcast too widely, so only one or two OTAs are given the discounted rate.
• Less customer support . Many smaller OTAs save money and offer lower fares by skimping on customer support.
• Big change/cancellation fees . Many smaller OTAs charge inflated change or cancellation fees in order to offer lower prices initially.

What benefit can online travel agencies have?

It can be cheaper.  The main benefit of OTAs is they are often cheaper than booking directly with an airline. The same flight selling on United.com for $600 may cost $500 on an OTA, for example.

You can combine airlines for the perfect itinerary. Some OTAs like Kiwi let you purchase multi-airline itineraries. Airlines will only sell you their own flights (or partner airlines’ flights). Some OTAs, on the other hand, will let you buy a single itinerary that crosses the ocean on Delta, say, but then take your final leg on Ryanair.

What drawbacks can online travel agencies have?

The 24-hour rule may not apply. One of the best tools to have in your back pocket when buying flights is the 24-hour rule , which lets you cancel a ticket you booked without any penalty as long as you do so within 24 hours of purchase. This protection is guaranteed by the federal government, but only when you book directly with an airline . Some OTAs like Priceline offer their own 24-hour guarantee, but it’s not required by law and most OTAs make all sales final.

Customer service can be lacking. OTAs, especially smaller ones, often skimp on customer support. This can range from outsourced and minimally-staffed call centers to exorbitant fees if you need to change or cancel your ticket. Of course, this lack of support is part of how OTAs offer lower fares to begin with.

If things go wrong, it gets complicated. In addition, having a middleman can complicate any mishaps because airlines will tell you to coordinate any issues through the OTA rather than directly with the airline. And the OTA may turn around and push things back on the airline, leaving you stuck in the middle.

Mistake Fares are less likely to be honored. Finally, when there’s a Mistake Fare , booking through an OTA carries some risks. Think back to how OTAs operate. Unlike booking directly with an airline, booking through an OTA means going through a middleman, which can delay how quickly you receive your ticket after clicking purchase. For normal fares this rarely makes a difference because the fare is far less likely to imminently change. But for Mistake Fares, which can disappear any minute, that delay in receiving your ticket can be the difference between your purchase being honored and it being politely refunded with the quoted fare no longer being available.

This delay between purchasing and ticketing is one of the reasons why we recommend people wait a week or two before making any non-refundable travel plans. But once you’ve got an e-ticket number with the airline and can see your itinerary on the airline’s website, you should be all set.

How do OTAs make money? 

Online travel agencies make money by taking a commission from the airline, hotel, car rental agency, or cruise line when you book.

(At Going, we don't take any commissions from the airlines when we send our members deals. We make money when members pay for our services, which means our number one priority is making members happy, not getting them to book specific flights that line our pockets.)

Am I going to get scammed by online travel agencies?

If you’re worried that a smaller OTA will take your money and not give you a ticket, don’t be.

The worst you can expect is that, on occasion, you purchased a fare that no longer existed when you bought it. If that happens, they will reach out to you (almost always within 48 hours or less) to tell you your ticket can’t be sold at that price. At that point, you’re given the option to either purchase at a higher price or have the entire transaction voided and your money refunded.

Why do some online travel agencies have terrible reviews?

It's true that some online travel agencies have bad reviews. Does that mean you shouldn't use them? There are two schools of thought here.

The first is that these reviews are worthwhile because other people’s experiences can be instructive.

The second is that the nature of internet reviews tends to skew towards negative experiences. How many people whose flight was uneventful are then motivated to go back and write a review for the OTA they purchased it from?

Another other reason it can be worthwhile to take a nuanced approach to negative reviews is that they tend to come from folks who didn’t understand how smaller OTAs operate. They may have been unaware of the higher change/cancellation fees, outsourced customer service representatives, or the delay between purchasing and ticketing. Obviously those aspects of smaller OTAs aren’t ideal, but its those factors that also allow for often-substantial price savings.

Are all airlines listed on OTAs? 

No, unfortunately not all airlines are listed on all search sites. Notably in the US, Southwest fares aren't listed on Google Flights. Often, smaller regional carriers don't work with the large OTAs so you'll need to search those directly.

Should I book through an OTA or directly with an airline?

This is the million-dollar question. On the one hand, an OTA fare may be hundreds of dollars cheaper than booking directly. On the other hand, it’s completely understandable to be hesitant about booking a flight through an OTA you’ve never heard of before.

There are a few cut-and-dry situations. If the price is the same booking directly with the airline versus booking through an OTA, there’s almost never a reason to book through the OTA.

Conversely, if the OTA price is over $500 off the direct price, of course an OTA is the way to go.

But for more gray-area situations, it mostly comes down to a personal comfort level.

Questions to consider:

• How certain are you to take that specific flight? If there’s more than a 10% chance you’ll want to change or cancel your flights, the initial cost savings may not be worth the potential fees for altering your plans.
• Are the potential savings worth it? If the OTA savings is $5, most people would be wise just to book direct. If the savings start to become substantial, it starts to become a matter of individual comfort. Is paying an extra $50 worth the extra peace of mind of booking directly? $100? $200?
• Is it a Mistake Fare? Because booking through an OTA can lessen the chance a mistake fare is honored, the potential savings should be higher to make it worth it. Someone may prefer to book through an OTA if the savings exceed $50, but might increase that savings threshold to $100 if it’s a mistake fare, for instance.

Join Going and save up to 90% on your next flight. We're not an OTA—we just let you know when fares drop to amazing prices that can save you hundreds.

Founder & Chief Flight Expert

Published August 7, 2023

Last updated January 9, 2024

Articles you might like

How to Use Google Flights: A Guide to Finding Cheap Flights [2024]

Mar 28, 2024

17 min read

How to Find Cheap Flights in 2024: The Ultimate Guide

Why Are Flights So Expensive Right Now?

Treat your travel to cheap flights.

Most deals are 40-90% off normal prices with great itineraries from the best airlines. If it's not an amazing deal, we won't send it. Sign up for free to start getting flight alerts.

What Is An Online Travel Agency And How Do They Work?

• Category: Marketing Strategy for Tour Operators
• Date: November 4, 2020

Wondering what an online travel agency is? Arival defines an OTA in its “Sales & Distribution Trends & Outlook 2020” report: “Contract tour and attraction products from operators, market them online, and resell them on their websites for commission.” Below, we’ll provide additional definitions and examples of online travel agencies.

We’ll also cover how an online travel agency earns money, their roles in the travel industry, and the disadvantages of online travel agencies.

What Is An Online Travel Agency?

An Online Travel Agency (OTA) is an online or app-based marketplace where consumers can browse, book, and pay for hotel rooms, transportation, lodging, airfare, restaurants, and experiences. Customers book directly with the OTA and the OTA confirms with the service provider. Therefore, the OTA has a relationship with the customer, not the service provider. OTAs differ. While some target a specific audience, others may be broader.

This is a straightforward way for travelers to find activities in the area they’re visiting without having to do a ton of research. While it makes it easier for travelers to find an activity in the area they’re staying in, going through an OTA is more of an impersonal experience.

The allure of OTAs is that they have millions of monthly visitors and offer a depth of travel inventory that covers a wide variety of experiences, geography, and groups of travelers.

OTAs – One-Stop-Shop

OTAs have become a one-stop-shop for travelers. From bookings airfare to hotels to experiences, consumers no longer have to spend hours researching or calling to plan their adventures. OTAs also provide reviews that have become increasingly popular and more important in this technological age.

Online Travel Agency Examples

Notable examples of OTAs are Expedia, TripAdvisor/Viator, GetYourGuide, and Klook. Consumers visit websites like these to book their guided tours, hotels, and airfare because of its ease of use. OTAs are the intermediary between tour operators and the customer. Because they operate not just as an agent for outfitters but as a marketing arm, guiding companies pay them a commission. 

"> Automate Your Tasks ">

Tour operator life is complicated Use a booking platform that simplifies it.

How An Online Travel Agency Works

Getting started.

• Some online travel agencies require tour operators to apply to be a supplier on their site, while others only request guides to make an account and they’re automatically approved.
• When the OTA approves the tour operator, they can create a listing. Usually, the OTA prompts for answers to help the operator complete fields relating to their listings.
• Once a tour operator finalizes their listing, it goes live immediately, soon thereafter, or following the OTAs review.
• There is a possibility of finding new customers through the OTA because they can reach and advertise to places a small or new operator cannot.

The Marketplace

• Consumers visit the marketplace and browse for their next adventure, hotel, or airline ticket. Not only are tour operators competing with other tour operators but they’re also competing with OTAs that offer their own options, like GetYourGuide.
• Some OTAs offer “curated marketplaces” instead of “open marketplaces.” This means they choose what providers to show on their platform. Some operators fear that OTA’s will curate towards ‘best-selling, high-capacity’ companies (i.e. large companies preferenced over smaller operators). Let’s remember that the best-selling does not always equate to the best quality or best guest experience.
• When a consumer signs up on the OTA platform, their contact information and review stay on the OTA platform and are not pushed to the operator’s website.
• Depending on an OTA’s cancellation policy, if the consumer cancels their reservation, your business could lose money.

How An Online Travel Agency Earns Money

Whenever a customer books an activity through an OTA, the tour operator must pay the OTA a commission, which can range anywhere from 15 to 30% of a booking . OTAs and tour operators negotiate the commission rate.

Bigger companies can negotiate a lower rate because of their size. According to Arival, this is one of the primary reasons operators won’t work with OTAs. As a small operator, their commission fees could be too costly and you could end up losing money.

Disadvantages Of Online Travel Agencies

Not necessarily the best deal through an ota.

Many consumers visit online travel agencies for deals, but what ends up happening is that they end up paying the same, if not more than if they booked directly with the tour provider. 

OTAs Keep Customer Contact Information

For tour operators, most, if not all, OTAs own the customer data and do not share it with tour operators. This means there is no relationship between tour outfitters and the people who go on your excursions.

Lack of Inventory Tracking

In order to keep track of inventory, tour operators will likely have to have a connectivity channel provider. A connectivity provider is a communication line between the tour operator’s website and the OTAs website. This keeps inventory numbers accurate and prevents outfitters from having to track inventory manually.

If a tour outfitter does not use a connectivity channel provider, it is up to them to track their inventory by hand. Manually tracking inventory often leads to overbooking or double booking reservations.

Tour Operators Become Overreliant On OTAS

It might make sense for a new tour operator to use an OTA to reach a new market they wouldn’t otherwise. The extensive database of customers on an OTA platform provides the possibility of more bookings an operator could receive as opposed to marketing to a new audience on their own.

What we’ve heard happen is that these operators become too reliant on OTAs for new customers. Should this happen, an operator is at the mercy of any changes made by the OTA, like commission fees, for example.

Alternatively, Origin offers freedom and growth for tour operators. We’ve developed simple booking software to keep you organized and to grow your business.

Get Started with Origin​

Sign up and get started on Origin today. Start using a scheduling and booking platform built for your business.

You Might Like...

9 Social Media Automation Hacks For Tour Operators

4 Reasons You Should Explore With an Outdoor Guide

7 Essential Tips to Prepare for Winter Adventures

Smile Mountain Guides: On Passion, Purpose, and Nature

4 Hacks To Create Your Guiding Business Plan

How To Automate Tour Guide And Staff Scheduling For Operators

How To: Website Automation For Tour Operators

The journal.

• Property Management System
• Channel Manager
• Booking Engine
• Marketplace
• Revenue Management
• Cloudbeds Payments
• Cloudbeds Amplify New!
• Whistle for Cloudbeds New!
• B&Bs and Inns
• Hotel Groups
• Vacation Rentals
• Channel Connections
• Ambassador Partner Program
• Cloudbeds Horizon
• Become a Partner
• Case Studies
• Resource Center
• Guides & Reports
• Calculators
• What to Expect
• Customer Success
• Knowledge Base
• Product Updates
• Cloudbeds University
• Government Compliance
• Company News
• Meet the Team
• Careers We're Hiring!
• Become an Ambassador
• Event Schedule
• Cloudbeds Amplify
• Whistle for Cloudbeds

What are online travel agencies? The ultimate guide to OTAs

Love them or not, online travel agencies (OTAs) play a critical role in every property’s distribution strategy. According to Expedia Group’s 2023 Path to Purchase report, OTAs captured 51% of online hotel & lodging bookings and possess the visibility and marketing power that most individual properties cannot achieve on their own. 

Working with OTAs isn’t just a matter of signing up and hoping for the best. To take advantage of the opportunities and avoid the pitfalls, you need to actively manage your listings, pricing, and inventory and take a strategic approach to online distribution. 

If done correctly, adopting the right OTAs as part of your distribution strategy can actually help drive direct bookings through the “billboard effect.” Building a comprehensive channel mix incorporating different types of OTAs will ensure you reach your target audience and secure a steady stream of reservations. 

See which OTAs dominate globally, regionally, and across property types based on Cloudbeds customer data and how properties like yours use OTAs as part of their distribution strategy. 

At Cloudbeds, we know the world of OTAs and distribution channels can be complex. We’ve created the Big Book of OTAs to help demystify this process and explain how to create a recipe for success when working with third-party distribution channels.  

What is an online travel agency (OTA)?

An online travel agency (OTA) is a website that acts as a search engine for travel. They connect providers across the travel industry to help travelers easily plan their trips. On OTA sites, travelers can often access package deals with accommodations, airfare, cruises, rental cars, and more .

On average, travelers view 141 pages of travel content in the 45 days before booking a trip, with OTAs making up 67 of those pages. Therefore, properties must be active on as many channels as possible to increase brand awareness and drive bookings — both OTA bookings and direct bookings (more on this later). With the increased popularity of OTAs around the world, hoteliers now have access to markets once unattainable.

How do OTAs work?

Online travel agencies emerged in the 1990s, using the internet’s extensive reach to aggregate global travel supply into a single place so consumers could book their own travel online. These self-service tools reshaped the hotel industry and the way travel was researched and booked, as the general public could now easily plan their trips and reserve their airfare, accommodations, and tours on their own rather than rely on a physical travel agent.

Sites such as Expedia.com, Booking.com, Airbnb, Orbitz, Hotels.com, and TripAdvisor are often consumers’ first stop when researching and booking their next trip. These sites offer a seamless user experience at all stages of the buying process: problem/need recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, and post-purchase behavior.

Properties of all types and sizes can connect to multiple OTAs through an integrated channel manager . A distribution system, like a channel manager, shares room inventory and rates from your property management system (PMS) to your booking engine and OTAs. Properties that use a channel manager can streamline hotel operations, increase hotel revenue via revenue management best practices , and increase occupancy across channels (all without the fear of overbookings). 

OTA business models

Hotels form partnerships with OTAs by basically outsourcing marketing to OTAs, who then make money through two business models: the merchant model (guest pays the OTA  in advance) and the commission model (guest pays the hotel at check-in or check-out). Most OTAs offer a blended model so that hotels can let guests choose which option they’d prefer. 

The merchant model

In this model, the online travel agency acts as the merchant of record and collects payments from guests at the time of booking. Once the guest has checked out, the OTA pays the hotel. Contracts exist between hotels and OTAs to provide a set number of rooms to the OTA at a favorable rate. The OTA then makes a profit off each room sold but must meet its contractual thresholds.

The agency (commission) model

In this model, the consumer books via the OTA but pays the hotel directly at the time of checkout. The hotel then pays the OTA a commission on the total value of the booking after checkout. There are no contracts, and rates are set by hotel management. 

The advertising model

This model has increased in popularity and exists on metasearch sites such as Google Hotel Ads, Tripadvisor, Trivago, and KAYAK. Metasearch engines work primarily on a cost-per-click basis where hotels can promote their rooms with links to their direct booking engine, and pay a fee based on the number of clicks they receive. Some of these sites, such as Google, also offer a cost-per-acquisition model (also known as “pay per stay”) where the property pays a percentage of the total reservation cost upon completion of the stay.

For hotels, it can be frustrating to watch distribution costs rise without getting more in return, but there are costs associated with direct bookings too. Demand doesn’t appear without at least some sort of distribution or marketing strategy in place, and those marketing campaigns, loyalty offers, special deals, and direct booking tools have a cost to the hotel. That’s why it’s important to use OTAs wisely and in conjunction with your own direct marketing strategy. 

Online travel agencies vs. online travel agents

Before the rise of OTAs, it was the role of a travel agent to book leisure and business travel. This is because travelers back then did not have access to hotel availability and rates the way we do today. While the internet has made it easier for travelers to book their own trips online, some segments like luxury, corporate, and group travelers still prefer to utilize a person, or online travel agent, to help plan and book a trip.

Travel agents are beneficial when planning complex trips such as a destination wedding, honeymoon, or corporate trip. They have the expertise and connections to find unique accommodations at better rates than most people can find themselves.

Travel agents such as Kuoni have a team of destination experts who work behind the scenes to curate tailor-made accommodations, experiences, and itineraries. Their in-person stores allow travelers to enjoy a glass of champagne while meeting with a travel expert to plan their dream vacation.

Travel agents usually have a portfolio of properties they recommend to travelers and take a commission fee, similar to OTAs. Strong relationships with travel agents can help properties drive more bookings in alternative segments than the OTA market.

Difference between OTAs and metasearch

With so many online booking channels available today, it can be challenging to understand the difference between certain channels.

Metasearch websites like Skyscanner act as aggregators and display hotel information and room rates from a variety of online channels, including OTAs like Agoda, Trip.com, Travelocity, or Priceline.com and a hotel’s website. It enables travelers to compare all of their hotel booking options in real time across the web so that they can book the best deal.

OTAs provide room rates and booking capabilities for only one channel — their own. Meanwhile, metasearch sites can display up to twenty or more results.

Properties can invest in hotel marketing efforts through metasearch engines. Metasearch sites rank listings and it pays off to be near the top. Paying to have your listing higher in the ranks to drive more direct bookings can drive serious results. 

Is Google an OTA?

Google is often a traveler’s first stop when looking for a hotel room. In recent years, Google has changed the hospitality industry with its products. Google offers Google Hotel Search, which acts as a hotel metasearch platform. When a traveler enters a property’s name into Google, it will show all of the rates and listing information from across the web.

Google also has free booking links , a game-changer for independent hotels as they can list their direct rates and links to their own website within the Google Hotel Search box. This option encourages potential guests to book direct.

The Big Book of OTAs

• First name *
• Last name *
• Property Name *
• Property Type * Property type* Hotel Bed and Breakfast Hostel Apartment Groups Vacation Homes Alternative Accommodations
• How many listings do you have?
• How many Addresses does your business have?
• Language for your demo * English
• Increase revenue
• Delight guests
• Streamline operations
• Property Name
• Property Type Property type* Hotel Bed and Breakfast Hostel Apartment Groups Vacation Homes Alternative Accommodations
• Postal Code
• Language for your demo English Spanish Portuguese Franch Vietnamese Japanese Thai Italian
• Cloudbeds Hospitality Platform
• Cloudbeds Websites
• Ambassador Program
• Terms of Service
• Privacy Policy
• Data Security
• Cookie Policy
• Accessibility

ColorWhistle

Digital Web Design Agency India

Explore our Market-Fit Services

We ensure to establish websites with the latest trends as we believe that, products whose value satisfies the needs of the market and its potential customers can be efficiently successful.

Quick Links

• About Us – ColorWhistle
• Engagement Models
• Testimonials
• Case Studies
• Agency Services
• Web Development
• Web App Development
• Digital Marketing
• Travel Website Development Services Company
• Real Estate Website Development Services Company
• Education Website Development Services Company
• Healthcare Website Development Services Company
• Hotel and Restaurant Website Development Services

Category: Travel

Date: October 20, 2023

Online Travel Agencies – A Brief Introduction

The role of an online travel agency (OTA) is becoming increasingly important in the accommodation industry as they provide a convenient way for travelers to arrange their stay. From the comfort of their home, travelers can compare hotel prices and book them over the internet. 

In this blog, we are going to discuss what an OTA is, the best OTA platforms, travel website development and how to do it right, and more.

Ready? Let’s go.

What Are Online Travel Agencies?

An online travel agency (OTA) arranges and sells accommodations, tours, transportation and trips on an online platform for travelers. They are third parties who sell services on behalf of other companies.

Usually, these OTAs offer many benefits with added convenience with more of a self-service approach. They also include a built-in booking system which allows instant bookings.

How Do Online Travel Agencies Work?

OTAs generally work on two models. They are,

1. Merchant Model

In this model, hotels sell rooms to OTAs at a discounted or wholesale price. Then, the OTA sells them to the customer at a markup price

2. Agency Model

This is a commission-based model where OTAs acts as a distribution partner. OTAs receive full commission after the stay has taken place. The hotel directly receives the payment from the end customer and does not wait for the payment transfer from third-party distributors.

What Are the Benefits of Partnering with Online Travel Agencies?

In one word – exposure! Online travel agents get thousands of website visitors from all over the world. Plus, they have positioned themselves as an authority on everything related to travel. So, people trust the recommendation they receive from OTAs.

By listing in OTAs, accommodation businesses like hotels not only reach a vast set of audience but will also find their service among many other reputable sources of information.

In addition, hotels that are listed on OTAs can also benefit from what is referred to as the ‘billboard effect’. This means that OTAs provide a form of advertising for service providers such as hotels on their platforms. Once the user gains this awareness, they may even go to the website of that particular hotel to make a direct booking.

What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Selling Through Online Travel Agents?

Accommodation businesses like hotels and B&Bs have pros and cons of getting listed in OTAs. Let’s take a look at them.

Advantages Of Online Travel Agents

• Low-cost method of selling accommodation services
• Reduced online marketing spend as OTAs invest in advertising to attract potential customers
• Impartial reviews give customers the confidence to book
• Users can easily compare various accommodation costs at one place

Disadvantages Of Online Travel Agents

• Commission rates are charged on every sale. It can range between 10-15% of the gross cost
• Restrictive cancellation terms
• Even if accommodation businesses use OTAs, the need for their own website and booking engine does not go away
• Investment in a balanced multi-channel strategy may be needed to boost sales

Even though OTAs can help to fill your rooms, accommodation businesses must try to maximize revenue through their own website. Consistent work on search engine optimization tactics and other digital marketing techniques is a must. Accommodation businesses must focus on customer retention techniques and directly target their existing customers through emails and direct marketing.

How To Start An Online Travel Agency?

Travel agencies no longer inform customers about the availability of flights and rooms. They issue rooms and get a commission from the respective accommodation businesses. That is why most of the new travel businesses follow the OTA model.

If you plan to enter the OTA arena, you can specialize in pilgrimages, leisure travel, business travel or any niche. But, focusing on how effectively you offer things is the key to success.

Here Are Some Points You Have To Consider When Starting An Online Travel Agency.

• Register the name of your agency and if applicable, take a license as per your local laws
• Try to get a membership in IATA or any other reputed travel organization
• Gain more knowledge about the travel industry and particularly the nice you want to concentrate
• Get your travel website designed by a professional company like ColorWhistle
• Offer deals that focus on a specific geography. Focusing on a particular niche will also bring more success
• Publicize your business in the online space
• Utilize the power of blogging
• Create a good social media presence

Why Do People Use Online Travel Agencies?

 here are some of the main reasons they prefer ota’s..

• Few OTAs offer reward programs which can be used for future travel needs
• Special rates which cannot be found elsewhere
• Some OTAs may have generous cancellation policies. For example, Priceline does not offer any penalty if the user cancels the ticket until the end of the next business day
• Most users may not have an idea on where to book other than an OTA
• OTAs make it easy to compare different rates

Who Are the Top Online Travel Agents?

1. booking.com.

Booking.com is one of the largest accommodations websites which has now expanded to smaller markets such as family-operated bed and breakfast, vacation rentals and self-catering apartments.

Interesting statistics

• Every day, 1,550,000 nights are booked
• 68% of nights booked came from families and couples
• 42% of nights booked came from unique places such as homes and apartments
• 38% of reviews are given by guests which are useful for other travelers
• 75% of nights booked come from guests who booked more than 5 times

2. Expedia’s Hotels.com

Expedia’s Hotels.com is a popular brand which has a global audience and attracts diverse travelers. The company gained more power in the industry by acquiring Travelocity.

• Gets over 675 million monthly site visits
• Operates in 70+ countries and 40+ languages
• Attracts 75 million monthly flight shoppers

Airbnb revolutionized the travel accommodation industry by introducing home-sharing. The website has diverse listings and travelers get a sense of safety as they can know their guest’s identity.

• 2.9 million hosts are present on Airbnb
• Average of 800k stays each night
• 14k new hosts join every month

Apart from these major OTAs, there are many small ones such as OneTravel, Vayama, Tripsta, TravelMerry, ExploreTrip, Kiss&Fly, Webjet, GoToGate, Travelgenio, Bookairfare, Fareboom, Skybooker, Travel2be, OneTwoTrip!, and eBookers.

Drive Conversions and Boost your Business with Expert Travel Website Development.

What the future holds for online travel agencies.

It is clear that, in the near future, accommodation businesses are not about to back down from OTAs. They are enjoying the billboard effect and trying their best to retain website visitors and convert them into direct booking. 

Sure, there is a cost involved. The upside of this is that accommodation businesses are working hard to create a loyal customer base that will continue to seek direct bookings.

The chances of OTAs suffering in the long run are pretty slim. Smaller accommodation businesses have a lot to gain from the exposure they receive through OTAs. Plus, a large portion of the younger generation prefers OTAs. So their market will continue to grow.

If you need any help to design, develop or market an OTA website, contact our travel web design and development experts at ColorWhistle . 

We can create an amazing website with beautiful designs combined with dynamic content such as live rates and special offers. Contact us today for your free business analysis and consultation.

In quest of the Perfect Travel Tech Solutions Buddy?

Be unrestricted to click the other trendy writes under this title that suits your needs the best!

• Travel Meta Search Engine
• GDS Travel Agency Guide
• GDS OTA Travel Meta Searchengines
• Travel Aggregator Website
• Best Travel Websites Inspiration
• Travel Website Features
• Top WordPress Travel Website Themes

Related Posts

Exploring the World Through AI and VR in the Travel Industry

How AI-based Travel Booking Applications Can be Developed?

Latest Marketing Trends for Travel Businesses in This New Year

About the Author - Anjana

Anjana is a full-time Copywriter at ColorWhistle managing content-related projects. She writes about website technologies, digital marketing, and industries such as travel. Plus, she has an unhealthy addiction towards online marketing, watching crime shows, and chocolates.

View Our Services

Have an idea? Request a quote

Share This Blog

its a good website i love it

i think it is a great website i love it so much but i need more information about what am looking for. thanks

It is a good website and I need more information for learning

I learned a lot through this web.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Ready to get started?

Let’s craft your next digital story

Sure thing, leave us your details and one of our representatives will be happy to call you back!

Eg: John Doe

Eg: United States

Eg: [email protected]

More the details, speeder the process :)

Exciting news! We've launched a new website for Expedia Group partners. As you explore this website, you may be redirected to the new experience to get the latest information. Check it out today ! 

Oops. It looks like your browser doesn't support JavaScript, which is keeping you from having the best experience on our site. No worries! You can fix it by going to the settings in your browser and enabling JavaScript.

Why do you need an Online Travel Agency (OTA)?

Working with an Online Travel Agency (OTA) not only helps you reach more travelers globally, it allows you to engage them when they’re researching, planning and booking their next trip. Discover how they work, what tools they offer and how to choose the right one for your business.

What is an OTA?

An online travel agency (OTA) is a web-based marketplace that allows consumers to research and book travel products and services, including hotels, flights, cars, tours, cruises, activities and more, directly with travel suppliers. Every day, millions of travelers around the world use OTAs to plan leisure and business travel.

OTAs provide access to your potential guests in locations and at volumes that would be difficult for you to access through your own marketing efforts. Additionally, OTAs provide market insights and tools for targeting travelers, securing and processing bookings, communicating with guests and managing reviews.

How do hotels work with OTAs?

Hotels of all sizes–including bed & breakfasts, inns and ryokans–sign contracts to list their properties on an OTA. There are no upfront fees to list rooms in the marketplace. OTAs make money only when rooms are booked, collecting a percentage of the total value of each secured reservation.

The OTA provides opportunities to  showcase rooms and properties  through amenity descriptions, photos, nearby points of interests and more. Listings are displayed to travelers searching for places to stay in your destination. If they use filters to narrow their search—e.g. only looking for pools, free Wi-Fi, or air conditioning—the OTA will align travel criteria with the detail provided by the hotel, displaying the properties that match best.

The OTA provides a secure booking platform and is the traveler’s main point of contact for booking amendments and cancellations. At no cost,  OTAs provide a variety of tools —from real-time access to market data to tools for managing reviews—to help their partners be successful.

Why work with an Online Travel Agency (OTA)?

OTAs are increasingly popular. In fact, travelers today use OTAs  50% more  than hotel websites to compare leisure travel options. And that means OTAs can play an important part in your  distribution strategy.

Here’s why hotels like yours are choosing to use OTAs.

Online marketing investments you don’t have to make

Every year OTAs spend millions of dollars attracting consumers from around the world to their online travel marketplaces. Their investment in on online and tv advertising, billboards and sponsorships, social media and other marketing channels helps hotels to engage hard-to-reach travelers they couldn’t afford to reach otherwise. OTAs give you a low risk opportunity to grow your business, especially if you have limited marketing funds.

Greater visibility for your own website

Evidence shows that being listed on an OTA can bring more traffic to your property’s own website, because consumers often use OTAs for their search before booking directly. This is known as “ The Billboard Effect ”.

A  2011 study  which looked at consumers’ online pre-purchase behavior found that around 75% of people who made direct reservations with a major hotel brand had visited an OTA website before booking directly with the hotel.  Another report in 2017  showed that the “Billboard Effect” still occurs, as many people still visit an OTA prior to booking direct.

Increased ability to target high-value guests

Through their listing tools and marketing programs, many OTAs can help hotels target guests who will be delighted with their stay and drive profitable growth. Possibilities range from packaging rooms with flights to attract guests who tend to cancel less, to targeting business travelers, budget or luxury guests, families or those from specific regions.  Marketing programs  can help you achieve specific business goals, including maintaining high  average daily rates (ADRs) , driving longer stays to reduce costs or capture last-minute bookings. Best of all, when you attract the right guests for your property, you increase the likelihood of positive, glowing reviews.

Access to rich tools, analytics and insights

OTAs give you  free access to market data , competitive insights, traveler preferences and tools that otherwise can be costly to acquire on your own. Most will offer easy-to-use analytics to help you better understand your  year-over-year performance  and how you compare to like properties in your market. Based on their data and the booking trends in their marketplace, they may make suggestions to help you improve your results and offer tips and resources to support your decision making.

Dedicated support teams

Many OTAs support their partners’ success through regionally based account teams. These individuals have extensive market knowledge, can share insight on regional trends and advise on tactics that will help drive business success. When partners have issues or concerns, support teams and  help content  is available. Additionally, most OTAs provide travelers with service when they experience challenges before, during and after a trip.

What should you consider when choosing an Online Travel Agency (OTA)?

There are many OTAs to choose from, and they come in all shapes and sizes, from large, global OTAs to local and niche-interest ones. Here’s what to consider when comparing OTA options.

Who is their audience?

Many OTAs target specific audiences. Think about the region and segment you want to target and whether an OTA caters to this audience. For example, if you own a small B&B mainly catering to families, you would want to avoid signing up with an OTA which mainly targets business travelers.

You can find out more about an OTA’s target audience by looking at the properties listed on their website, or by simply asking a representative at the OTA before  signing up .

What is the user experience for guests?

Take a look at their traveler-facing websites (such as expedia.com) and get a feel for what the searching, browsing and booking experience is like for your potential guests.

If you find the experience difficult or frustrating, it’s likely other travelers will too. Frustrated travelers are likely to look elsewhere to make their bookings.

What features do they offer to partners?

Every OTA has a different set of  tools and analytics  to help with revenue management, pricing decisions, and promotion of your property. Some larger OTAs have whole teams dedicated to creating these tools, so it is worth assessing which OTAs offer the most useful tools for you.

Another important thing to consider is whether an OTA integrates with your  channel manager . This integration will be important to your  distribution strategy , helping smooth management of bookings and eliminating the risk of overbooking errors.

Once you’ve considered all these options and found the perfect OTA, it’s time to  sign up !

Meet Expedia Group

Prague hotel enjoys growth in a saturated market

Surrounded by 4 and 5-star competitors in the city’s old town, this historic hotel uses real-time pricing data and package promotions to grow steadily.

Discover Partner Central

The Complete Guide to Booking Travel Online

What is an online travel agency, and what are the best sites and apps to use to search for hotels and flights we break it all down for you..

• Copy Link copied

There’s a lot to navigate when researching and booking travel online.

Photo by Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock

My first travel adventure was to Venezuela. I booked the ticket with a travel agent over a pay phone. The agent searched a dozen flight itineraries over a few days, all so I could save $15.

Times have changed. Today, flight searches start online , often on your mobile device. Passengers book either directly with the airline or hotel or with online travel agencies. Rarely do we get on the phone. In fact, American Airlines and United Airlines charge $25 to make a domestic flight booking by phone. And pay phones hardly exist anymore.

So, what is the best way to book online? Here is our complete guide to online travel agencies, search tools, and the variety of booking options available on both mobile devices and desktops.

What is an OTA?

An online travel agency, or OTA, is a website or mobile app that allows users to search for and book travel services such as flights, hotels, car rentals, cruises, and activities. The booking is made directly with the online travel agency but confirmed by the service provider, such as an airline or a hotel. As a customer, your relationship is with the OTA.

What are the main OTAs?

Many online travel agencies nowadays are owned by two main companies: Expedia and Priceline. The Expedia Group is the largest online travel agency in the United States with 70 percent market share, according to travel data firm Phocuswright. Expedia Group operates Expedia.com , Orbitz, Hotels.com , Trivago, CheapTickets , Hotwire , Vrbo , and Travelocity .

Priceline is a major competitor to Expedia, with global revenues larger than the Expedia Group. The company owns Priceline.com, Booking.com, Cheapflights, Momondo, and Kayak—the latter two being metasearch engines (more on that below).

There are also independent newcomers such as Hopper (a mobile-only booking tool) and Kiwi.com (which allows you to book flights on air carriers that don’t normally have a commercial relationship).

Are OTA fares lower than booking directly?

Generally, no. The fares that are displayed by an OTA will be similar if not slightly more expensive when compared to an airline’s website. They’re usually only a few dollars higher or lower. The OTAs charge a booking fee to the airlines, and often that fee is passed directly to consumers. For example, Lufthansa tacks on an additional $18 to any booking made through an OTA for Lufthansa flights. The same flights are exactly $18 cheaper on the airline’s website.

Where you can score a good travel deal through an OTA is when booking a last-minute hotel and flight package. Many OTAs have cut agreements with airlines allowing last-minute travelers to access lower rates than are typically available when passengers book a flight alone.

Are all airlines available to be booked through OTAs?

No. Many OTAs do not display flights from some of the low-fare leaders. For example, Southwest and Allegiant flights are not available through OTAs; the same goes for Ryanair in Europe. And, earlier this year United Airlines threatened to pull out of Expedia altogether, only recently signing a multi-year agreement to stay in. The airlines would rather not lose any margin to online travel agencies in an already low-margin industry and would rather maintain a direct relationship with the customer.

Are smaller OTAs safe to use?

Expedia and Priceline are the two largest players in the online booking space, but there are dozens of independent OTAs, such as CheapOAir, OneTravel, JustFly, and SmartFares. Confusingly, you might actually stumble on ads for these OTAs while using Expedia or Priceline sites. That’s because the larger OTAs earn revenue through advertising, sending passengers to smaller OTAs and charging those OTAs for the favor.

Buyer beware: some of these lesser-known OTAs are masters at hidden fees. For example, a flight search on JetBlue allows for free seat selection in many instances. If you perform the same search on FlightNetwork, an independent OTA, and select a seat, you will be charged an additional $25—despite the fact that JetBlue doesn’t charge a seat selection fee if you book directly.

What if you need to change your itinerary?

Itinerary changes are often a pain. If your plans change, it won’t matter whether you’ve booked directly with an airline or with an OTA—you’re going to pay fees for the privilege, if you can even change your ticket at all.

For example, CheapTickets.com, which is part of the Expedia Group, charges $25 to change or cancel a ticket if that change is requested after 24 hours of making the booking—it is free if you do so within 24 hours of booking. However, the fees go up from there. JustFly, an independent OTA, charges a $75 fee for changes to domestic flights in addition to airline change fees, plus the difference in fare, for tickets that can be changed. For an international trip, the fee rises to $200. That means to change an international flight with Delta (which charges a $100 change fee) booked through JustFly, you’ll be assessed $300 in fees, plus the difference in fare. At that rate, you may as well book a new flight. FlightNetwork indicates in its terms of service that changes may incur a change fee but doesn’t specify what those fees are. That hardly makes the few dollars you saved by booking with the OTA in the first place worth it.

What is an OTA price match policy?

To assure travelers that they are getting the lowest fare possible, many OTAs have a price match policy. The rules vary and so do the benefits.

For example, if you book with Orbitz and find a less expensive flight, car rental, or activity on any U.S.-based website within 24 hours of your booking, Orbitz will refund you the difference you paid. And it works: I have personally found a flight in the same class, on the same airline, for the same origin and destination cities, and requested Orbitz to refund the difference of around $35. Within a few weeks, I received a check in the mail. A similar program applies for CheapOAir, but there’s a catch—the price difference must be found on a major OTA such as Expedia or Travelocity.

Expedia has a particularly good price match policy, but you have to pay extra for it at the time of booking. Expedia offers the price match option as an add-on that costs between $5 and $30 when you book. With the price match applied, if the airfare on Expedia drops between 120 days of the flight and up to six hours before the flight, Expedia will automatically refund you the difference in fare. Unfortunately, fares generally do not drop substantially as the travel date approaches, so while this might give you peace of mind, it’s probably not worth the expense.

How do Google Flights and other travel metasearch engines work?

Frequent fliers are likely familiar with websites such as Google Flights, Kayak, Momondo, or Skyscanner. On these websites, passengers search on the site but are redirected to the service provider to complete the booking, such as an airline, rental car company, or hotel.

Metasearch started with a product called ITA Matrix, which is a tool for searching airfares online but not for actually booking online. ITA Matrix allows for multi-city searching, such as setting two different departure or arrival airports, and for offering a calendar view of fares for easier comparison. That company was acquired by Google in 2011, and savvy travelers swear by it to help find the least expensive fares online. Most consumers are more familiar with Google Flights, which has gained traction more recently not least because it has the benefit of being displayed first in search results on Google.

Metasearch engines receive distribution fees from the airlines for sending traffic to the supplier websites. There are no additional hidden fees for using a metasearch engine because you’re booking directly with the airline or hotel.

A major benefit of the metasearch engines is their price tracking tool, which lets users know whether the displayed fares are low, average, or high for the flight, allowing travelers to make a more informed decision on whether to book a flight or not . Google Flights and Kayak, for instance, both have price tracking tools.

Why not just book directly?

The airlines would definitely much rather you book directly with them. Over the past five years, they have gotten much better at marketing and selling their product directly to consumers online and through mobile sites and apps. But in the past, they weren’t so good at it. In fact, Delta, Northwest, United, American, and Continental got together to invest $145 million to launch Orbitz in 1999 to counter the threat from Expedia. Now Orbitz is owned by Expedia.

The airlines also try to encourage customers to book directly so that they can maintain a closer relationship with them. It allows carriers to connect bookings with loyalty programs and create special offers and discounts catered to individual passengers.

There is another benefit to booking directly. The U.S. Department of Transportation requires carriers to hold a reservation at the quoted fare for 24 hours without payment or allow a reservation to be cancelled within 24 hours without penalty, so long as the booking is made at least seven days before travel. The law applies, however, only to U.S. and foreign air carriers that have websites marketed to U.S. consumers. This means that, in theory, an online travel agency does not have to offer such a policy, although most OTAs do.

What are the options for booking on your mobile device?

Airlines and the major OTAs all have apps to help you book and manage your trip on your mobile device, but their functionality is lacking compared to these websites’ desktop editions. For example, Expedia’s app doesn’t allow you to view flights on a month-view calendar. Kayak has an app with more bells and whistles and a better user interface, including a month-view calendar with color-coded pricing. It also has a handy “augmented reality” function to help you see if your carry-on bag will fit in the overhead bin (a feature originally developed by KLM). Point your phone’s camera at the luggage, and it’ll give you the dimensions.

While apps are improving and gaining in popularity, you still might find it easier to locate the best deals on flights and hotels by using your desktop, where you can have multiple tabs open and have all the available search tools at your disposal. Apps are fine for booking directly with an airline once you know which flights you want to book.

If you’re determined to use your mobile device, you may want to look into Hopper. Hopper is a mobile-first flight booking tool that has a solid price prediction tool. You can research travel options and book directly on the app. Another benefit of Hopper: Of its team of 300 employees, nearly half are dedicated to customer support and are based in Canada versus some OTAs and airlines that outsource much of their customer service further afield.

The bottom line?

Like many travelers, I enjoy a flight deal as much as the next person, but I also don’t like any added hassle. I typically start my travel searches using the ITA Matrix or Google Flights to get a general sense of the fares. It helps to know what is a good deal and what is expensive for a particular route. I do my research, typically on a desktop computer. When I’m ready to book, I’ll book directly with the airline. I’ve found that customer service is better when booking directly with the service provider. But I’ve also saved money by using OTAs and have booked with them, too. Whichever way you choose to book, you can be safe in the knowledge that finding and purchasing travel online is a lot easier today than searching for a deal with a travel agent on a pay phone.

>> Next: How to Get the Best Last-Minute Travel Deals

• Credit cards
• View all credit cards
• Banking guide
• Loans guide
• Insurance guide
• Personal finance
• View all personal finance
• Small business
• Small business guide
• View all taxes

You’re our first priority. Every time.

We believe everyone should be able to make financial decisions with confidence. And while our site doesn’t feature every company or financial product available on the market, we’re proud that the guidance we offer, the information we provide and the tools we create are objective, independent, straightforward — and free.

So how do we make money? Our partners compensate us. This may influence which products we review and write about (and where those products appear on the site), but it in no way affects our recommendations or advice, which are grounded in thousands of hours of research. Our partners cannot pay us to guarantee favorable reviews of their products or services. Here is a list of our partners .

The Pros and Cons of Booking Through Online Travel Agencies

Many or all of the products featured here are from our partners who compensate us. This influences which products we write about and where and how the product appears on a page. However, this does not influence our evaluations. Our opinions are our own. Here is a list of our partners and here's how we make money .

You’re likely already familiar with online travel agencies, even if you don’t travel often. These companies — such as Priceline , Expedia and Orbitz — act as intermediaries between you and a travel provider.

Booking your travel through an OTA can be a good idea in some circumstances, but you’ll want to be wary of its pitfalls. Let’s take a look at the pros and cons of online travel agencies, so you’ll know what to use to book your next vacation.

Pros of booking through online travel agencies

There are certainly advantages booking through online travel agencies, though you’ll find different experiences whether you’re using public OTAs — such as Kayak — or private ones like those offered by your card issuer, such as the Chase's travel portal .

✅ It may be cheaper

When searching for flights online, you may see different prices for the same routes that vary across websites. Although it may be a result of fare type — for example, some search results may not clarify that a fare is basic economy rather than main cabin or economy — other times, the difference comes down to competition for your business.

Online travel services will often offer slightly lower prices on flights in an effort to entice you as a customer. This is true for both hotels and airlines.

» Learn more: Best credit cards for online travel-booking websites

✅ It can earn you more rewards

Have you ever heard of shopping portals ? By logging into a shopping portal, you can earn rewards for purchases made with many online merchants. Some hotel chains, such as Hilton , Marriott and IHG , can be accessed through shopping portals while still booking directly on the hotel website. In this way, you can earn rewards with the hotel directly as well as with the shopping portal.

The same isn’t true for shopping portals and most airline sites. However, many public online travel agencies are accessible through shopping portals, which can then earn you rewards for airfare bookings. By opting to book in this way, you’ll be able to earn points or cash-back rewards through the shopping portal that you’d otherwise miss.

Some card issuers will also reward you heavily when using their online travel services. Clear examples of this can be seen with Capital One and Chase. With the Capital One Venture X Rewards Credit Card , for example, you’ll get 10 miles per dollar spent on hotels and rental cars booked through Capital One Travel .

The Chase Sapphire Reserve® is similar. With this card, you can get 10 Ultimate Rewards® points per dollar spent on hotels and rental cars booked through Chase's portal.

While these numbers are high, it’s important to remember that there are trade-offs when booking through an OTA rather than directly with a hotel or airline. We’ll get into that a little later.

Online travel agencies offered by your card issuer may not feature the same prices as booking directly; you’ll want to compare these before committing to a purchase.

Some card issuers will go so far as to give your points more value when redeeming through their online travel agencies.

This is true with the Chase Sapphire Preferred® Card . When redeeming points on Chase's travel portal, you’ll get 1.25 cents in value per point rather than 1 cent elsewhere.

» Learn more: How much are your airline miles and hotel points worth this year?

Cons of booking through online travel agencies

There are several downsides when it comes to using online travel services for booking travel. It mainly comes down to the fact that travel providers prefer that you book directly with them — and offer more perks to woo your business.

❌ It can be harder to change a booking

Ever needed to change a flight after it's booked? No matter the reason, attempting to alter or otherwise cancel a flight can be a hassle — especially if you’ve booked through a third party.

Generally speaking, rather than offering you direct assistance, both hotels and airlines will recommend you contact the online travel agency you’ve booked with in order to make any changes.

While you may be able to make changes or get refunds with the travel agency, airlines and hotels can — and will — offer much more flexibility when you’ve booked with them directly. You may also be subject to additional fees charged by the online travel agency, which can erase any savings you’ve received.

❌ You may not receive elite benefits

This is the real kicker for anyone wanting elite status. Although airlines will almost always recognize your elite status and allow you to earn miles even for bookings made through an online travel agency, hotels and rental car companies will not.

This is especially important for hotel chains. Earning elite status with hotels generally relies on elite night credits. Although these can be earned in a variety of ways — including having complimentary status by holding certain credit cards — the main method of acquiring elite night credits is by spending nights in hotels. Rooms booked through an online travel agency do not count toward elite status as elite night credits.

Additionally, you will not receive any of the benefits of your existing elite status if your booking is through a third party. This can mean the loss of perks such as room upgrades, complimentary breakfast and even free Wi-Fi.

» Learn more: The best airline and hotel rewards loyalty programs this year

❌ It may be more expensive

Did you know that many hotel chains have best price guarantees? Hyatt, Hilton, Marriott and IHG all have a guarantee that’ll give you either points or a discount if you find a better rate elsewhere.

These guarantees are generous; Hilton, for example, will match the rate and then discount it by a further 25%.

Although you’ll need to file claims for these guarantees and they face limitations — such as a 24-hour window from when you made the booking — you can save a lot of money on your stay if your request is approved.

Online travel agencies can be hit or miss

There are two sides to every coin and this is no different, as there are several benefits and limitations of online travel services. Depending on your needs and loyalty program status, you’ll want to choose whether to book directly with a travel provider or rely on OTAs to do the job for you.

Booking travel through credit card portals from issuers like Chase and Capital One can earn you big rewards. But if you anticipate altering your travel plans or aim to earn elite status instead, booking directly is the way to go.

How to maximize your rewards

You want a travel credit card that prioritizes what’s important to you. Here are our picks for the best travel credit cards of 2024 , including those best for:

Flexibility, point transfers and a large bonus: Chase Sapphire Preferred® Card

No annual fee: Bank of America® Travel Rewards credit card

Flat-rate travel rewards: Capital One Venture Rewards Credit Card

Bonus travel rewards and high-end perks: Chase Sapphire Reserve®

Luxury perks: The Platinum Card® from American Express

Business travelers: Ink Business Preferred® Credit Card

on Chase's website

1x-5x 5x on travel purchased through Chase Travel℠, 3x on dining, select streaming services and online groceries, 2x on all other travel purchases, 1x on all other purchases.

60,000 Earn 60,000 bonus points after you spend $4,000 on purchases in the first 3 months from account opening. That's $750 when you redeem through Chase Travel℠.

1.5%-6.5% Enjoy 6.5% cash back on travel purchased through Chase Travel; 4.5% cash back on drugstore purchases and dining at restaurants, including takeout and eligible delivery service, and 3% on all other purchases (on up to $20,000 spent in the first year). After your first year or $20,000 spent, enjoy 5% cash back on travel purchased through Chase Travel, 3% cash back on drugstore purchases and dining at restaurants, including takeout and eligible delivery service, and unlimited 1.5% cash back on all other purchases.

$300 Earn an additional 1.5% cash back on everything you buy (on up to $20,000 spent in the first year) - worth up to $300 cash back!

on Capital One's website

2x-5x Earn unlimited 2X miles on every purchase, every day. Earn 5X miles on hotels and rental cars booked through Capital One Travel, where you'll get Capital One's best prices on thousands of trip options.

75,000 Enjoy a one-time bonus of 75,000 miles once you spend $4,000 on purchases within 3 months from account opening, equal to $750 in travel.

The Complete Guide To Online Travel Agencies

In the current digital era with an abundance of choices and overwhelming options, the role of an Online Travel Agency (OTA) and travel club have become increasingly important within the travel and hospitality industry. Back in 2015, OTAs accounted for about 60% of online bookings of independent properties and hotel chains combined.Currently, OTA travel controls nearly 2/3rd of all online hotel bookings. Let us delve into how they play a crucial role in increased hotel bookings and how to implement them correctly.

What Is An Online Travel Agency?

Online Travel Agency (OTAs) is a web-based travel company that lets customers research and instantly book travel products or services via an online platform. OTAs sell a range of travel-related services to other companies or travel providers, thus acting as third parties.OTAs can provide access to customers at different locations and handle bookings in large volumes which is rather difficult to access through retailers’ marketing efforts alone.Also read: Affordable Travel Club: Making Travel Economical

How Do Online Travel Agency (OTAs) Work?

• OTAs are able to pull travel deals and booking options from all around the internet and provide the user with many options so they can choose what fits all of their needs. Find the right OTA partnership and optimize it to reach your target audience and generate revenue.• Next, you can list hotels and properties of all sizes and showcase rooms through the product description, photographs, nearby points of interest, etc. Listings can be thoroughly searched using filters that narrow search such as Wi-fi, pool, spa, etc. and OTA will align travel criteria with the matching properties.• OTAs provide real-time access to price, demand forecasting, current bookings, etc. to further help the travelers. The booking platform is secure and can be used as the main point of contact to make amendments or cancellations.

How Online Travel Agency (OTA) Help To Increase Revenue

Adding your hotel on OTAs can significantly improve hotel bookings and increase revenue. Here are a few reasons to have multiple OTAs connections for your hotel.

Increased traffic – One of the major benefits of OTA is that it drives traffic to the hotel’s main reservation website. OTAs act faster than the hotel website and redirect guests to research and book. According to Google, nearly 52% of customers visit the hotel’s main website and view the available rooms, etc. before the final booking.

Increased exposure = more bookings – Hotels can get more exposure by partnering up with OTAs. As your hotel gets more visibility, it leads to increased bookings, also known as, Billboard effect. Many guests prefer to book via an OTA before direct booking. According to a study around the online prepurchase behavior of guests, about 75% made the reservation through an OTA website before booking directly with a major hotel brand.

Better OTA ranking and reviews – OTAs include reviews and rankings to individual hotels that allow customers to get a good idea about hotel services and eventually give a push for conversion. Increased conversion rate means more revenue for your business.

Target high-value customers – OTAs can target high-value customers through their listing tools and drive profitable growth for hotel brands. Marketing programs of OTAs can help achieve specific business goals and generate more revenue.

Access to analytics, insights, and tools – OTAs provide free access to competitive insights, marketing data, travelers’ preference and more to help your business with overall strategy and pricing. It allows you to compare your performance with your competitors and understand target markets that help to increase ROI.

How Do OTAs Make Money?

Most online travel agencies make money through commissions from their clients for travel bookings and the travel provider they market on their digital platform. OTAs have multiple revenue streams, and the extent of their net profits depends on the type of services they offer – corporate, custom, leisure, and partnership marketing.Here is a breakdown of the most common ways that OTAs make money.

Commissions: A massive chunk of income of OTAs is made via commissions per booking. The commission rate may range anywhere between 5% and 25% or may go up higher. Fees for serving clients: OTAs also make money through fees that they charge from their clients for a range of services such as travel planning, booking, creating a detailed itinerary, arranging necessary paperwork and transport, and more.

Specialized services or Consultancy: OTAs can earn big bucks by offering consultancy or technical assistance to their clients. Based on their expertise, they may book corporate or group travel services, offer dedicated travel guides during vacation, negotiate with local tour operators on clients’ behalf, and more.

Advertising and Premium listings: Many OTAs earn big bucks directly from travel vendors through advertising or by offering premium listing options on their web platform. An OTA may feature certain hotels and airlines as top results in client searches and then earn a pay-per-click basis.

Why Do Travelers Use OTAs?

The new age travelers prefer booking via OTAs for several reasons. According to a report published in 2020, many travelers use OTAs for the quality of services, safety, and trust. Let us explore five main reasons that make OTAs the preferred option for bookings among travelers -

Convenience -The modern, savvy traveler relies on OTAs to easily access and a convenient booking process. OTAs are accessible on most devices – web browsers and mobile apps. It is a one-stop-shop for all travel products and services within a single platform, making the booking process easy and hassle-free.

Instead of physically booking hotels, airlines, or car rentals one by one, customers can book everything under one digital platform with easy payment options. Also, customers get booking details in real-time with instant confirmation.

Cost-Effective -OTAs often provide their customers with exclusive booking offers such as sign-up bonuses, coupons, etc., that tempt customers into booking from them. Also, it is easy to compare different travel providers on OTAs and thoroughly research before finalizing the right option.

Range Of Services -OTAs offer travel products and services under one umbrella that leaves their customers spoilt for choice. Customers can search everything from hotels, vacation rentals, flights, car rentals, and adventure packages.

The ease of accessibility of online bookings facilitates customers to get detailed information on services or products they are booking. For instance, before making a hotel booking, customers can check the detailed description of services provided by the hotel along with images, reviews, level of service, etc. that helps in driving the purchase decision. Additionally, customers can search through a plethora of airlines to make a booking as per their budget and the quality of service provided by the airline. In the future, if they wish to make the same booking, it is easy to check the past booking option and refer to it without searching for it all over again.

Quality -Most travelers rely on OTAs for quality of service or product. OTAs are seen as experts in travel products they sell, and customers have a certain level of expectation from their products regarding quality, security, hygiene, and privacy.Customers do not shy away from sharing their personal information and entrust OTAs for a high level of security and protection from spammers or breaches.

Reviews -Travelers often leave reviews after their booking, which lets other potential customers know about their experience and steer them into booking. Positive feedback or reviews play a vital role in travel buying.

What to consider when choosing an Online Travel Agency (OTA)?

Online Travel Agencies vary in offerings, size, type, and industry depending on their travel portfolios and niche interests. Here are the things to consider when choosing the right OTA for your business -Your target audience and markets: The first and foremost thing to remember while choosing the most suitable OTA for your business is the regions, markets, or customer segments you wish to target. Some OTAs target specific niches or demographics, while others target a particular geographical location. If you want to cater to the corporate travel market, you should partner with an OTA targeting business or corporate clients.

Features of OTA: OTAs come fully equipped with several user-friendly features, including back-end management, inventory management, customer support, payment processing, subscription management, and more. While some OTAs offer a dedicated team to manage different aspects of your business, others provide various useful tools and analytics software to manage customer journeys throughout their entire life cycle. Choose an OTA that offers seamless and smooth integration of these tools, which eliminates the risk of mismanagement in the future.

User experience and accessibility for customers: Your business requires an OTA that offers a seamless experience to your target audience and is loaded with valuable features that interest them. Your customers should be able to browse and make bookings without any hassle easily.Also, it is essential to check various features of OTAs – including their services, product offerings, and database of travel products. Make sure that their listed products fit best to your business model. If your potential customers look for a guest house or rental, there is no point considering an OTA of a big hotel chain.

Expertise: Look for OTAs that have experience and knowledge along with a solid market presence. Large OTAs usually have a good record of handling businesses and promoting them along the way. Working with a reputed OTA with access to rich tools will help make your entire business process faster and less problematic.

Tips To Increase Your Bookings Through Online Travel Agents

Once you have found the right OTA for your business, it is time to make the most of your time and effort to increase your revenue. Here are some solid, actionable tips to improve your bookings through OTAs.

Know your competition : The competition in today’s travel industry is extremely fierce, so it is essential to know your competition or business rivals before laying out a perfect business strategy. It will help you set clear objectives and well-defined goals to stand out from the rest. To launch your business, advertise your business vigorously on all digital channels using email marketing, social media campaigns, and more to reach a larger audience.

Pricing: Price is one of the most important criteria for customers to drive the purchase decision. Make sure that you employ the right pricing strategy at the right moment using forecasting methods. Use scarcity to your advantage. Offer limited-time discounts or coupons to engage urgency and coax customers into buying.

Reviews And Ratings : Many prospective customers read guest reviews before making up their minds to buy from you. Make sure to highlight positive feedback and reviews while resolving the negative reviews to improve continually. It is vital to building a good rapport with your customers to establish yourself as a reliable and trustworthy brand.

Upsell And Cross-Sell: Customize travel packages with add-ons such as travel insurances, visa assistance, and other value-added services that lure your target audience into buying them in a way that also increases the order value. In one of thier surveys, TripAdvisor noted that Wi-Fi is the most desirable amenity for travelers, followed by free parking and breakfast.

Use OTAs Promotional Marketing: Take full advantage of OTAs by capitalizing on their promotional opportunities, such as running ad campaigns, travel loyalty programs and strategic placement on the search engine for greater exposure. This will help bring more visitors to your website and help generate good returns on your bookings.

How To Start A Home-Based Travel Club

8 ways to generate travel club social media leads.

Whats Is An Online Travel Agency?

An Online Travel Agency (OTA) is a web-based marketplace designed to help travelers research and plan their vacations. Online travel agencies help consumers book flights, hotels, cars, tours, or vacation rental homes directly from the supplier.  

Online travel agencies make reaching potential guests easier than traditional marketing and provide insight into the market and tools to help you get more bookings. These platforms also help to enable secure bookings, manage reviews, and communicate directly with guests. 

Top Online Travel Agencies for Vacation Rentals

The top online travel agencies for vacation rentals include: 

• Booking.com
• TripAdvisor

What Is the Best OTA for Vacation Rentals?

The best online travel agency for your vacation rental business depends on the specific features that you’re looking for. For example, if you’re renting out a single property, you might opt for Airbnb because of its lower commission fees. On the other hand, if you have a boutique hotel, Booking.com could be more suitable for your business.

While all the previously mentioned OTAs are leaders in the industry, each owner should decide for themselves what works best for their property. Ask yourself the following questions: What kind of audience would you like to be exposed to? Which OTA provides the user experience that you are looking for? What resources stand out? By knowing the demographic of each platform and the tools that they provide for both hosts and guests, you’ll be able to make an informed decision. 

What Is the Largest Online Travel Agency?

Airbnb is the largest OTA for vacation rentals with more than 6 million rental properties in 100,000 cities across 191 regions. Its popularity is primarily due to its user-friendly booking interfaces. 

How Do Online Travel Agencies Work for Vacation Rental Owners?

Most online travel agencies allow vacation rental owners to list and advertise their properties for free. Depending on the platform, the OTA may take a commission of 3% to 25% of each sale made on their site. 

Although every OTA varies, most of them will require a simple sign-up process. You’ll then be prompted to describe your property, including the location and size of the home as well as what amenities you offer. After uploading photos and setting your prices, you’ll be ready to accept bookings. 

Depending on the OTA and settings you choose, guests will either make direct reservations or request to make a reservation. 

Travelers find your home by searching for rentals in the location and the dates of their vacation. They can also apply filters like the number of guests they are searching for and property types and amenities offered. 

Guests can contact you directly through the OTA inbox or by phone or text message if the specific OTA allows you to share your contact info. Refer to our online travel agency list above to find the best OTA for your property.

• Read more: Vacation Rental Listing Sites: Comparison of Rates and Fees

We’ve just launched a new feature! Check out our new dynamic pricing

What is an online travel agency?

Online travel agencies have become an essential part of doing business for many tour operators. But what is an online travel agency and what do they do?

Table of contents

Content Manager

Subscribe to our newsletter

For a lot of tours and activity providers, working with online travel agencies is an essential part of doing business. These have strong, well-known branding, can reach guests in new markets and have marketing budgets that most operators could only dream of. But what is an online travel agency?

An online travel agency, or an OTA, is an online marketplace for travel that sells products to consumers. There are a large number of these, and many focus on specific segments or markets. The big 3 OTAs, according to Skift, are Trip.com, Booking Holdings, and Expedia . For tour operators, some of the main ones are GetYourGuide, Viator, Expedia and Musement.

A brief history of OTAs

OTAs have become the way that most consumers purchase travel products. The first were founded in the mid-90s, with Travelweb selling hotels, the Internet Travel Network for flights, and in 1995, Viator launched for experiences. Since then, the OTA market has grown to $475 billion and is predicted to be $1 trillion in 2030 . Two-thirds of all travel revenue is spent with an OTA.

Despite Viator being one of the first OTAs, tours and activities have always lagged behind airlines and hotels when it comes to online sales. In part, this is because many of the companies that operate in the sector are smaller and lacked the resources to come online. Cost-effective reservation systems changed that , as did the ability to stop and work on different parts of businesses during the pandemic. Phocuswright and Arival say that online bookings jumped from 17 per cent of all bookings in 2019 to 30 per cent in 2021 .

In 2019, OTAs only accounted for three per cent of all bookings for experiences, according to the same research. By 2021, this was four per cent, and by 2025, it is expected to be seven per cent. This represents a jump from $8 billion in revenue to $20 billion by 2025. In 20 years, OTAs have come a long way.

Travellers use OTAs for several reasons. In 2020, Arival found that these were because of price, ease, best ticketing options and where the consumer first found the trip . Operator websites performed better when it came to providing the best options and finding what they wanted. However, 45 per cent of travellers said that OTAs had the best price and, since the survey, their marketing budgets will have ramped up, meaning that these are where consumers will discover products.

Difference between online and offline agencies

The main difference between an OTA and a brick-and-mortar travel agency is that the consumer is expected to do some of the work. Offline agencies contain a huge amount of expertise and contacts that should give travellers a worry-free holiday. They will book the flights, hotels and sometimes experiences so that the traveller doesn’t have to.

OTAs are cheaper because they turn this on its head. They offer do-it-yourself travel to their customers. On an OTA, a traveller will find the contacts and content they need but must rely on their own ability to book the right trip. The traveller also uses reviews provided by others to judge the quality of their trip. All the knowledge and experience of the in-person travel agent has been outsourced.

OTAs are also able to reduce costs because they do not need to rent a high-street location or spend money on other associated costs. However, they do need to spend more on customer service for those customers who have problems and on marketing. The difference in cost is the main reason that most consumers are happy with a DIY approach to travel, although there are a lot of people who love researching and making their holiday plans.

Offline travel agencies still exist, and many of the larger brands have moved to a hybrid model. In this case, they offer the full-service, high-street experience while also offering their own OTAs. For example, TUI’s office can still be found in town centres, while their website offers packages and DIY options. TUI is also the owner of the European tours and activities OTA, Musement.

Types of OTA for experiences

There are as many different types of OTA for tours and activities as there are types of trips. Operators who work in the adventure or wellness spaces will be able to find OTAs that work specifically in their niche. Some OTAs focus on specific geographic markets or languages, such as Civitatis for the Spanish-speaking segment. KKDay and Klook have different approaches to the Asian market. Then there will be those that focus on a specific segment and language.

The largest OTAs do not do this. They cast their net wide — both in terms of the activities they offer and the customers they wish to sell to.

Operators wishing to expand their sales reach should connect to both the main players and choose other OTAs who fit their niche and market. This can be made easier with a channel manager, such as TourCMS, which offers a range of connections to different OTAs, resellers and a marketplace .

What OTAs do

OTAs will use different techniques to sell tours and activities and will take a percentage of each sale. These will include consumers searching for a tour on the OTA’s site, on a search engine, and targeted marketing on social media.

When a traveller searches for an activity on an OTA, they will be shown a range of results that have been decided by the company’s algorithm. This will be based on the type of search, as well as other factors such as review scores, relevance and popularity. A general search for experiences in Monte Verde, Costa Rica, will display the OTA’s ranking of all the experiences in that area for the guest to choose from. A more specific search for walking tours in Paris will do the same, but just for that segment. The traveller will be able to filter the results, but they will always be ranked by the algorithm.

However, that’s not how most searches made by those planning their travel begin. This will happen on a search engine, almost certainly Google. Because of their size, the large OTAs will often show up in the first results organically due to their search engine optimisation. Guests will click through and see the trips they offer. The OTAs will also feature in the Google Things To Do section for that destination.

The very first results shown on a lot of searches are sponsored. These are adverts where a company has paid to appear next to a certain set of words that have been searched for. OTAs target these words so that they appear as the very first link, with their price showing, on that search. The results of this will be constantly monitored and optimised. 

OTA advertising will work slightly differently on social media platforms, particularly Facebook and Instagram. These have access to so much information about their users that it is possible to send targeted adverts that aim for a traveller to see exactly what they want when they want to buy it (which doesn’t always happen in practice). This traveller may also have visited the OTA’s site for research, in which case they will receive highly specific retargeting ads that are based on exactly what they have looked at.

This is why some tour operators consider the commission they pay OTAs, which can be 30 per cent of the total price, as a marketing cost. It means the operator can reach customers in source markets and in-destination that are actively looking for things to do, and who they would not have been able to advertise to themselves.

Latest blog posts

Tool and strategies modern teams need to help their companies grow.

HOHO and city tours

Mastering social media strategies for hop-on-hop-off bus tours.

Tools for hop-on-hop-off bus tour operators to reach customers and gain brand awareness on social media; read our tips for successful social media campaigns

Unlocking the power of personalisation: Importance for your brand

Personalisation goes beyond mere customisation. Here's how to tailor your communication to your audience

All industries

Why tour operators should use a b2b reseller.

Large- and medium-sized tour operators who want to increase their revenue and profitability should have a good look at using a B2B reseller

Join the tourism companies growing with Palisis

Take the first step towards streamlining your operations and maximising your profits. Schedule a demo or speak with our sales team today.

Join our newsletter

Get the best insights delivered straight to your inbox. Quality over quantity. No spam guaranteed

© 2024 Palisis AG. All rights reserved. Learn more in our privacy policy.

What is an OTA? Online Travel Agency Defined

In the ever-expanding realm of hospitality, the term ‘OTA’ is frequently tossed around. But what exactly does it mean, and why is it crucial for your vacation rental business?

Today, we’re demystifying the enigma of OTAs.

What is an OTA (Online Travel Agency)?

OTA stands for Online Travel Agency. These digital platforms, like Airbnb , Vrbo and Booking.com , act as intermediaries between hosts like you and travelers seeking accommodation.

Think of them as online marketplaces or booking platforms that connect your beautiful vacation rental property with a global , local or niche audience of potential guests.

Why OTAs Matter for Vacation Rental Hosts

OTAs play a pivotal role in the success of vacation rental businesses. They offer unparalleled visibility, putting your property in front of millions of travelers actively searching for unique and comfortable stays.

By listing your property on these platforms, you tap into a vast reservoir of potential guests, boosting your occupancy and revenue .

Benefits of Using OTAs

1. global exposure.

OTAs provide a worldwide platform, enabling your property to be discovered by a variety of traveler segments from every corner of the globe. This exposure can significantly boost your bookings .

2. Streamlined bookings for guests

OTAs offer user-friendly interfaces that simplify the booking process for guests. Travelers can easily view your property, check availability, assess your level of service, and secure their stay, enhancing their overall booking experience .

3. Credibility and trust

Being listed on reputable OTAs lends credibility to your vacation rental. Travelers often trust these platforms due to their – real or assumed — verification processes , leading to increased confidence in booking your property.

4. Payment security

Most OTAs handle payment transactions , ensuring a secure payment process for guests. This eliminates guest concerns about payment fraud and provides confidence to book.

How OTAs Make Money

OTAs operate on various business models, generally catering to both hosts and travelers.

Commission model

The most common approach, the commission-based model is where hosts list for free but pay a percentage of their booking amount to the OTA as a commission for every successful reservation. This incentivizes OTAs to promote your property as their earnings are directly linked to your bookings.

Many of the OTAs that use this approach also charge a commission from guests.

This is the model used by Airbnb, Vrbo, Booking.com, Expedia , etc.

Subscription model

In this model, the OTA charges hosts a fixed amount to list their properties on the platform, regardless of the number of bookings. This model is used by platforms such as Furnished Finder .

The platforms may or may not charge guests a booking fee.

Hybrid model

Some OTAs offer a hybrid model, combining aspects of both commission and subscription fees.

A few OTAs have their own distinctive model. For example, Hopper doesn’t charge hosts or guests a commission. Instead, it adds a dynamic markup to the rate provided by each property. Got2Go doesn't charge hosts either while guests pay a service fee per booking or an annual subscription.

Maximizing Your OTA Experience

To make the most of OTAs, optimize your property listings .

High-quality photos , detailed descriptions and competitive pricing can significantly enhance your visibility and attract more bookings . Moreover, prompt responses to guest inquiries and positive guest reviews can bolster your property's reputation and search rankings , leading to higher conversion .

Make sure you’re taking into account each platform’s unique requirements and preferences and optimize each listing accordingly.

OTAs vs Metasearch Engines

OTAs and metasearch engines serve distinct purposes in the online travel industry.

OTAs, as mentioned earlier, are platforms where hosts list their properties, and travelers can directly book accommodations. These platforms facilitate the entire booking process, including payment transactions and communication between hosts and guests .

Metasearch engines, like Google Travel and TripAdvisor , aggregate information from various OTAs and other sources, allowing travelers to compare prices and availability across different platforms. Metasearch engines redirect users to the respective OTA listings or direct booking websites to complete their reservations.

While both OTAs and metasearch engines contribute to a property's online visibility, OTAs offer a platform for booking directly while metasearch engines redirect to an OTA or direct booking listing.

Key Takeaway

Embracing OTAs is not a choice for most vacation rental property managers and hosts — it’s a necessity. By leveraging these platforms wisely and effectively, you open the door to a world of opportunities for your vacation rental business.

Ready to find out how Hostaway can transform your business?

Launched in 2015, Hostaway has helped thousands of vacation rental property managers regain their focus on growing their business. Hostaway takes pride in aligning itself with the needs of the fast evolving landscape and always provide reliable technology and great support. Sign up today!

Don't get stuck in a broken routine with poor software, manage your properties with Hostaway and experience a better business and life right away!

Best Online Travel Agencies

Booking.com is our top choice for making your trip arrangements

Ligaya Malones is an editor, blogger, and freelance writer specializing in food and travel. Ligaya's work has appeared in publications including Lonely Planet and BRIDES.

We independently evaluate all recommended products and services. If you click on links we provide, we may receive compensation. Learn more .

Planning a trip can be easier through an online travel agency than if you handle each aspect of the planning separately. You can book hotels, air travel, rental cars, and more through a single site, and booking everything together sometimes results in discounts. By inputting a destination, a range of dates, and other preferences, you will see a list of options for each aspect of travel.

The best online travel agencies offer options from the largest number of airlines, hotels, car rental agencies, and more. Look for sites that offer discounts for combining reservations for different aspects of your trip. For example, the best sites will have lower rates if you book both plane tickets and a hotel through their services. The best sites also provide reviews from customers who actually have booked through the service. These are our top picks.

• Best Overall: Booking.com
• Best Budget: Skyscanner
• Best Price Predictor: Hopper
• Most Innovative: Kiwi.com
• Best for Eco-Conscious: Kind Traveler
• Best for Social Impact: I Like Local
• Best for Design-Forward Homestays: Plum Guide
• Our Top Picks
• Booking.com

Kind Traveler

I Like Local

• See More (4)

Final Verdict

Frequently asked questions, methodology, best overall : booking.com.

 Booking.com

This industry leader offers one of the most comprehensive trip planning platforms on the Internet.

Lots of options to choose from

Interface is easy to use

Numerous filters to customize your search

Tricky to tell whether changes/cancellations can be made with Booking.com or the vendor directly

Booking.com was founded in 1996 and has grown into an industry leader that stands out for being one of the most comprehensive trip planning platforms out there. From one website, you can compare and book accommodations, flights (including one-way and multi-city flights), sightseeing activities, and even airport taxis. The website lists more than 28 million accommodation options, from hotels, hostels, and B&Bs to vacation homes and luxury resorts—you can browse more choices per destination on Booking.com than other online travel agencies. The website also performs well on cost and typically returns lower-than-average prices for flights and hotels. 

Booking.com's interface is also easy to use. On the home page, search for a hotel by entering your chosen destination and dates. Then, use the extensive list of filters—such as price range and distance from the city center—to narrow the results down and find the best fit. You can also search for a specific hotel, or seek inspiration by clicking through options grouped by destination or property type or by topic such as the country’s best Michelin-starred hotel restaurants or the top cities for vegan travelers. The flights, car rental, and other tabs are just as intuitive. 

Best Budget : Skyscanner

 Skyscanner

You can compare prices across airlines, hotels, and car rentals.

Simple interface

Option to toggle searches between specific dates or by monthly calendars

Search Everywhere button is great for spontaneous planners

Extra clicks are required to make a final purchase

Must read fine print for changes/cancellations—may need to deal directly with the vendor

Ads on the sidebar can be distracting

Find deals on airfare, hotels, and car rentals with an aggregator site like Skyscanner , which uses a metasearch engine to compare prices from all online travel agencies and the airline, hotel, or car rental company in question. Run searches with fixed dates, opt to compare airfare prices month to month, or click “Cheapest Month.” Searches also include options for nearby airports or non-stop flights only. With hotel searches, you can choose to select only from properties with free cancellation, a cleanliness rating of 4.5/5 or higher, or 3- or 4-starred hotels only. Car rental searches include an option to select “return car to different location.”

Once you’ve found the best rate, click on the link to be redirected to the third-party site to make your booking. Feeling spontaneous? The Search Everywhere button on the homepage offers a list of the cheapest flight deals for destinations both locally and across the world—just plug in your departure airport first.

Best Price Predictor : Hopper

The company claims a 95 percent accuracy rate at predicting when flights and hotel rates will be cheapest.

Color-coded system makes it easy to determine cheapest days to buy

App is easy to use

Option to track flights and receive alerts when the best time to buy arises

Some have mentioned the app functions better as a research tool than a booking tool

Unclear whether Hopper will price match if you find a cheaper flight elsewhere

Hopper is a travel app available on iOS and Android that aims to help travelers save on airfare by usng historical data and their own algorithm to predict when flights will be cheapest. Just type in where and when you’d like to fly and Hopper will present you with a color-coded pricing calendar indicating how much tickets are likely to cost. (Green is the least expensive, then yellow, orange, and red for most expensive.) Hopper will also recommend you either buy now or wait, or you can choose to watch a trip and receive notifications on the best time to buy. In addition, the app has expanded to offer hotel and car rental price predictions, too.

Some newer features since the app’s inception in 2009 include an option to freeze a price for a limited time—for an extra fee—as well as exclusive app-only discounts. Hopper is free to download, and you can choose to book directly through the app, though some users mentioned they use Hopper as more of a research tool before booking directly with the airline or hotel. The company claims a 95 percent accuracy rate at predicting flight rates up to a year ahead.

Most Innovative : Kiwi.com

This metasearch engine scours the web to piece together the ideal itinerary using planes, trains, buses, and more.

Creative itineraries get you where you need to go, especially if you’ve got a multi-stop trip

Kiwi Guarantee offers rebooking or cancellation protections

Nomad option appeals to travelers with a lot of flexibility

Creative itineraries mean you may not fly out of the same airport you flew into

Kiwi Guarantee has an additional fee

Charges all-in-one fee for booking flights, trains, buses (though you can always purchase a la carte)

Travelers planning multi-city destinations and seeking a bargain, as well as those looking to take planes, trains, and automobiles to get there, might consider Kiwi . Kiwi is a metasearch engine that scours and pieces together itineraries from various airlines (even if they don’t have a codeshare agreement), considers multiple airports (even if your arrival airport is different from departure), and offers booking options, whether you’re looking at very specific dates or more general ones (up to 60 nights).

Some will find the ability to make multiple bookings for a particular trip more convenient than going at it manually several different times, though note that you must opt into the Kiwi Guarantee program to access rebooking and refund protections should your reservation change or be canceled. Kiwi’s Nomad option allows you to plug in a bunch of destinations you’d like to visit and the length of your intended stay, and the website will churn out the most affordable itineraries for review.

Best for Eco-Conscious : Kind Traveler

A give-and-get business model means booking accommodations with exclusive perks, a donation to environmental organizations, and more.

All participating hotels include a local give-back component

Exclusive savings and perks

Participating hotels are located in some of the most beautiful places in the world

Inventory is much smaller compared to other booking platforms

Some of the amenities mentioned are based on availability only

In 2022, Kind Traveler (an online trave agency focused on hotel bookings) announced an increase in environmentally and socially conscious hotels, charity donations, voluntourism opportunities, and additional perks like waived resort fees or a welcome amenity.

Unlock exclusive hotel rates and perks from participating Kind Traveler hotels with a minimum $10/night minimum donation to a local charity. For example, stay at the Six Senses Laamu in the Maldives and receive up to $33 off the nightly rate and perks such as a food and beverage credit and an Earth Lab or Alchemy Bar workshop when you make a donation to Manta Trust. The organization funds coastal research to protect the island nation’s large yet fragile population of reef mantas.

Select from more than 140 participating hotels from the Hawaiian Islands to Bozeman, Montana, and the Maldives. Charities include wildlife, human rights, arts, education, and environmental preservation organizations.

Best for Social Impact : I Like Local

Choose from a host of travel experiences with the peace of mind that 100 percent of the cost goes directly to local partners.

Social impact mission woven into organization’s business model

Immersive experiences led by local guides

Range of experiences offered

May not be best fit for those seeking upscale, luxury experiences and stays

Can’t sort experiences by a list of countries (though an interactive map is available)

No experiences outside of Africa and Asia

For an online travel agency with a booking platform designed to route dollars spent directly to the communities travelers intend to visit, consider I Like Local . Visit the website to browse a host of travel experiences in countries including Indonesia, Kenya, and Cambodia. Experiences include homestays and farmstays as well as wellness and culturally oriented experiences—from cooking and cycling tours to weaving classes.

To search for an experience, select from drop-down items like travel dates and experience categories, or view a global map and click on a country to view experiences that way.

The platform got its start in 2014 and has grown to 4,000 local hosts across nearly 20 countries. As a social impact organization, 100 percent of each booking fee goes to local hosts. To date, 16,000 travelers have booked with I Like Local.

Best for Design-Forward Homestays : Plum Guide

Browse and book seriously vetted, design-forward vacation homes.

Highly curated inventory of vacation rentals across the world

Design-forward

Thorough vetting process

Does not publish guest reviews

Other platforms have homes available across more destinations

When it comes to booking a vacation home, serviced apartment, or condo, travelers are spoiled for choice. Plum Guide is an online travel agency that specializes in accommodations—though not just any home makes its directory. The company claims that each potential home listed on its site must jump through 150 hoops to be included, from internet speed and mattress and pillow quality to the showers’ water pressure and the home’s proximity to dining, shopping, and attractions.

Search by a featured collection on the website such as “ pet-friendly homes ” or “one-of-a-kind homes in Palm Springs.” Scroll to the bottom of its homepage to view its top destinations, as well as a list of all destinations where Plum Guide homes are available, including Barbados, Mexico, Portugal, Switzerland, the U.S., and Turkey. Note: From the top right-hand corner of the site, use the dropdown menu to select currency of choice.

As long as you know what you value most out of your travel experience—such as affordability, social impact, or luxe accommodations—there’s an online travel agency to help plan your next trip. Be sure to read the fine print, as some agencies are third-party websites and not direct vendors. If you're not sure where to start, Booking.com is your best bet for a smooth user experience and hard-to-beat offers on flights, hotels, and other travel arrangements.

What Is the Biggest Travel Agency?

Our choice for best overall, Booking.com, is known as an industry leader with listings for all major hotels, airlines, car rental companies, and more. It boasts more choices for accommodations per destination than any other site, and we found its interface to be user-friendly.

Are Online Travel Agencies Worth It?

This depends on your needs and priorities. The best online travel agencies certainly can save time by booking everything all at once. However, if you're someone who is good at haggling and enjoys the details of planning a trip, you might be able to find better deals by reaching out to hotels or other destinations and speaking to someone personally.

Is It Cheaper to Book Online Than With a Travel Agent?

Not always. A travel agent you know and trust should have the experience and connections to find deals that can match or surpass what you'll find online. Additionally, if something goes wrong, travel agents provide you with an actual person you can use as an advocate to correct the problem . But if you don't have access to a good travel agent, online sites still provide plenty of ways to streamline planning and save money .

We considered dozens of online travel agencies and narrowed down the options based on user experience, volume and quality of inventory, unique offerings and specials, and customer reviews. We also assessed travel companies’ environmentally and socially conscious policies.

Catherine Falls Commercial / Getty Images

Best Hotel Booking Sites

Best Online Sites for Booking Cheap or Discounted Airline Tickets

The Best Budget Hotels in Miami Beach of 2024

Best All-Inclusive Resorts for Solo Travelers

Best Budget Manhattan Hotels

Best Dreams Resorts

The 9 Best All-Inclusive Family Resorts in Mexico in 2024

Best Walt Disney World Resort Hotels in Orlando

Best Las Vegas Hotels for Couples

Best London Budget Hotels

Best Budget Disney World Hotels

The Best Oceanfront Virginia Beach Hotels

Best Disneyland Hotels

Best Hawaii All-Inclusive Hotels

Best Car Rental Companies of 2024

Saving Money on Your Summer Vacation

THE JOURNAL

Travel Inspiration

Online Travel Agencies: Do They Offer the Best Value? (Hint: No)

The Modern Travel Agency

https://www.foratravel.com/the-journal/online-travel-agencies

Do online travel agencies offer the best deal? And what’s the difference between an online travel agency (a.k.a. OTA) and a host agency for independent travel agents ? We have all the intel you need to make the right decision.

Already know the difference between OTAs and real, human travel advisors? Connect with Fora to book and plan your trip with expert advice, VIP travel perks and more (i.e., all the things you don’t get when you book with an OTA).

First, what is an online travel agency (a.k.a. OTA)?

Online travel agencies are “travel agencies” in name only. More accurately, they’re automated marketplaces that allow travelers to book accommodations, flights and car rentals from a single user interface. 

Expedia, Booking.com and Travelocity are among the most well-known examples, but there are dozens of choices that offer similar experiences.

Which online travel agency is the most popular? What’s the biggest OTA?

Booking Holdings, which owns Booking.com, Priceline.com and a few other recognizable names, is the largest online travel agency. But Expedia Group Inc., which owns Expedia, Travelocity, Vrbo and, again, other recognizable OTAs, isn’t far behind. 

It might be surprising to learn that these two companies own virtually all the most popular OTAs in the United States. But the more important point is that because of a lack of real competition, these OTAs have a lot of leeway in the prices they charge. 

Worse, most hotels and suppliers don’t have much of a choice but to allow OTAs to charge high prices on their behalf because such a high percentage of their bookings go through online platforms. Which is where online host agencies come into play. But we’ll come back to that later.

Are there different types of OTAs?

Technically, there are three different types of online travel agencies. However, within the industry, there’s a conscious effort to create separation between them. 

The three models are as follows: merchant agencies like Expedia, advertising platforms like Google and, in the strictest, most literal definition of an online travel agency, most modern host agencies.

Merchant-model OTAs 

Merchant-model online travel agencies are exactly what we’ve been talking about thus far. This is the most common type of OTA, and further down, we explain why they’re not your best choice for planning and booking trips.

Of the three choices, hotels generally prefer to get as few bookings from merchant OTAs as possible because hotels don't see as much of the booking value acquired through such sites, and are often delivered less reliable clients. This type of OTA has played a major role in soaring hotel prices since the early 2000s, especially domestically, because hotels have largely been forced to raise rates to protect their profits.

Advertising-model OTAs

Advertising-model OTAs aren’t agencies so much as they are ad platforms. The most prominent example? Google. Hotels basically pay to advertise their rooms on search engines and similar websites using a cost-per-click model. 

For hotels, advertising-model OTAs can offer a slightly better deal than merchant OTAs. But they’re still not most hotels’ favorite choice. Moreover, these OTAs can be frustrating for consumers, as they often display inaccurate prices for hotels and other suppliers.

Contemporary host agencies

Contemporary host agencies are considered online travel agencies only in the sense that their services are available via the internet.

Host agencies such as Fora provide a variety of tools, exposure and other benefits for independent travel advisors, who remain in charge of their own business. The best agencies also provide extensive travel agent training , community resources and more.

In the host-agency model, clients work directly with independent travel advisors — real people — who can not only make reservations anywhere, but also plan itineraries, which is something merchant online travel agencies can’t do. Additionally, travel advisors can answer nuanced questions, set up special accommodations and do much more that an automated system can’t even begin to address.

What do we mean when we refer to online travel agencies?

We’re talking about the merchant model (i.e., Priceline.com, Airbnb, etc.). Advertising models aren’t as popular, and host agencies are, again, only semantically considered online travel agencies. 

How do online travel agencies work?

We’ve covered the basics, but here’s how online travel agencies work — and why you may not be getting the best deal if you book through one.

How exactly do OTAs make money?

There are two common ways OTAs make money: first, they operate similarly to a traditional travel agency by earning commission from hotels and other suppliers — car rental agencies, tour operators and so on. Additionally, some OTAs will purchase blocks of hotel-room bookings at a discount, only to turn around and sell them for a profit.

(How do travel agent commissions work? See our guide.)

The top online travel agencies charge hotels & other suppliers exorbitant commission rates

Unlike traditional travel agencies, which typically earn between five and 10 percent commission from a partner, the OTAs typically demand much higher rates, usually around 30%. Many hotels have grown to rely on these bookings, so they have no choice but to raise their rates and comply. 

Unfortunately, this has had a ripple effect throughout the industry. However — and this is a big however — contemporary remote travel agents who work with a host agency (like us) are able to one-up online travel agencies by offering awesome upgrades, perks and other benefits to dramatically increase the overall value (we’ll come back to this later) at no extra cost.

Want to know what types of perks Fora Advisors can unlock for you? Book and plan your next trip with Fora .

Why do travelers use online travel agencies?

The simple answer: most travelers aren’t aware of the alternatives. 

Traditional travel agencies were decimated by OTAs in the 1990s and early 2000s. Plus, a lot of travelers today either assume that travel agents are a thing of the past (they’re not) or only plan and book bespoke vacations for elite clients (anyone can use a travel advisor).

Are there any benefits of using an online travel agency?

There’s no arguing that OTAs aren’t fast. And occasionally, you may find that online travel agencies offer a good, though rarely the best, deal. 

But when you take a look at all the drawbacks below, you may question whether it still makes sense to book through an OTA.

Client-focused drawbacks of using online travel agencies

Curious to know why online travel agencies aren’t your best choice for booking? Read on. 

Already convinced? Connect with Fora to plan and book your next trip.

1. You’ll rarely receive the best value (and sometimes you’ll pay more for less)

Online travel agencies may play a role in dictating hotel rates, but they can’t offer the enticing perks you get when you book through a travel advisor instead. In other words, you may be charged the same rate regardless of how you obtain a reservation, but you’ll get a lot more for your money if you book through a travel advisor.

What kind of perks are offered? It depends on the hotel and host agency, but property credits (usually between $50 and $100 in value), complimentary meals, extended check-in/out times and special amenities are just a few of the awesome extras Fora Advisors can unlock. 

Fora Advisors may occasionally be able to score better rates, too, particularly at independent hotels.

2. You won’t get a personalized experience

Ultimately, online travel agencies only care about putting heads in beds. That’s their bottom line, and it’s a deeply impersonal process. A personalized stay is off the table.

In contrast, you’ll exclusively work with an actual human if you book through a travel advisor. Better yet, travel advisors can work with a hotel to VIP your stay (even if perks aren’t offered). This is especially beneficial if you require some sort of special accommodation. OTAs can’t do this — and even if by some miracle you manage to put in a request, OTAs don't make sure the hotel follows through. 

3. You can’t always redeem rewards perks

This varies by the online travel agency, but oftentimes, you can’t book special rates or redeem rewards when you book with an OTA. Some won’t even allow you to earn points toward loyalty programs. 

4. It can be harder to change a booking

Seriously: good luck. 

If you need to change a booking, you generally have to jump through all sorts of hoops and hope that the supplier actually hears about the changes — or you have to outright cancel the booking and hope that you can rebook. At best, it’s a hassle. At worst, it can be a nightmare that causes you to lose money that otherwise could have been spent during your trip.

Want to avoid the pitfalls of booking through an OTA? Get personalized service, VIP travel perks and more when you plan and book your trip with Fora .

5. And worse, your booking can be changed or canceled with little heads up

Imagine living out your Spain bucket list only to find out one of your bookings was canceled, and no real effort was made to warn you. Online travel agencies are automated systems — they can’t, and don’t, always react in a timely manner if a hotel is forced to alter or cancel a booking. 

Worse, OTAs have been known to overbook hotels or rental cars, leaving some travelers stranded or unsheltered at the last minute. This isn’t a common occurrence, but why even take the chance?

In either scenario, a travel advisor would be able to help you immediately.

6. Hotels know they’re getting lower-quality clients, so they’re less likely to roll out the red carpet

First, let us be clear: when we say “lower-quality clients,” we only mean clients who aren’t likely to rebook the same hotel in the future.

Going back to “putting heads in beds,” hotels have no idea whom they’re catering to when a booking is made through an OTA. At reputable hotels, this matters. Great hotels want to take care of their guests because there’s a promise of repeat business, and it’s the right thing to do.

When a travel advisor makes a booking, they can let the hotel know who their client is and the hotel can take steps to make sure their guest — you — is well cared for. At a minimum, the hotel knows that if they do a good job, the advisor is likely to send back more clients.

For the client, this means they’re far more likely to enjoy an awesome experience when they book with a travel advisor because the hotel is incentivized to roll out the red carpet. When they book with an online travel agency, though, the hotel wants to recoup the OTA commission cost, so they typically offer nothing extra.

Recap: if not OTAs, what are the best travel agencies to go through?

Host agencies such as Fora offer a much better deal than online travel agencies.

Fora advisors offer actual guidance & real service

Fora travel advisors are subject-matter experts. They can break down any aspect of your trip to make sure you’re getting the trip you desire. There’s no guesswork involved, which can’t be said when you book through an online travel agency. 

Let’s say you’re booking with a Virgin Voyages travel agent from Fora. They’ll be able to tell you the differences between all the cabins, itineraries and so on. Better yet, they can help you decide which options best suit your preferences and budget, offering a truly tailored experience.

You’ll get the best value when you book with a Fora Advisor

We’ve touched on this before, but it’s worth repeating. 

Fora Advisors secure the best available rates for clients, and there are extras to take advantage of when you book with them. Our travel advisors can score all sorts of perks for clients who stay at partner properties (nearly 5,000 hotels globally and counting). 

For example, say you book a room at Hotel Californian, one of our favorite hotels in Santa Barbara , through an online travel agency for $500 per night (it’s a nice hotel). You’ll still pay that same rate with a Fora Advisor, but when you book with us, you’ll also get complimentary daily breakfast, a $100 hotel credit that can be put toward the onsite spa and, whenever possible, extended check-in/out times — and potentially more. You’ll also get VIP treatment, personalized service and an all-around better stay.

Find out for yourself when you plan and book with Fora .

A nd even if you don’t stay at a partner hotel, you will still get better service (plus potential upgrades at many hotels around the world) when you book with a Fora Advisor. 

Fora travel advisors offer peace of mind and can help if things go awry

One of the absolute best advantages of booking with a Fora Advisor over an online travel agency: we can help if something goes wrong with your booking. 

Whether you receive the wrong room, have a reservation canceled or suddenly require some sort of special accommodation, Fora Advisors can work with the hotel to make things right at a moment’s notice. (Our personal relationships with thousands of hotels around the world help make this possible.)

OTAs often don’t even try — or they put you through a bureaucratic process, days or even weeks later, after your trip. 

Does it make sense to book corporate travel through OTAs?

It’s not unreasonable to wonder if online travel agencies offer a better deal for corporate clients. But for all the reasons mentioned above, corporate travel agents still offer better value than OTAs. This is doubly true for more nuanced bookings — like corporate group travel — where it’s wise to have an actual person there to make sure that reservations and itineraries are honored by suppliers.

Want the best value for your trip? Book with Fora instead

Overall, online travel agencies simply can’t compete with the value that a Fora Advisor offers. From A+ travel perks to unwavering assistance if something goes wrong, it makes so much more sense to plan and book your trips with Fora .

P.S. Love the idea of travel planning as a career? Become a Fora Advisor

Considering a job in the travel industry ? Check out all the reasons to become a Fora Advisor , from uber-flexible schedules to extensive marketing and training resources — not to mention unlimited earnings potential.

Interested? Sign up to become a Fora Advisor . Or check out our posts below to learn how to become a travel advisor .

How Much Do Travel Agents Make? Fora’s Full Guide  

Everything You Need to Know about a Fora Travel Advisor Salary (and How Our Advisors Get Paid)  

What Does It Take to Become a Travel Agent?  

The Ultimate Travel Side Hustle: Selling Vacations  

How to Become a Disney Travel Agent  

Why Group Bookings Are Great: Tips from an Expert  

Debunking 3 Myths about Becoming a Travel Advisor

Book with Fora

Tell us more about yourself to get matched with a Fora Advisor and start planning your dream trip today.

What is an OTA?

The definition of an online travel agency (OTA) is a website that sells travel-related products, including airline tickets, car rentals, cruises, experiences, accommodations and more. 

Vacation rental managers would utilize OTAs that specialize in renting temporary housing to travelers. Some well-known OTAs in this category include Airbnb, Booking.com, TripAdvisor Rentals, HomeAway, Vrba, Expedia and FlipKey. 

How Do Online Travel Agencies Work?

An OTA allows vendors in the travel industry like vacation rental owners and managers to list and advertise their products, usually free of charge. 

The channels earn money by taking a commission on every sale. OTA rates and pricing vary between platforms, with commission ranging from approximately 3% to 25%. 

How Do I List My Rentals on OTAs?

Though each OTA has its own specific guidelines, most will walk you through a simple sign-up process, during which you’ll relay details about your property, and then create a listing description , upload photos of your rental, check off the amenities you provide and set your prices. 

How Does the Booking Process Work?

Once you’ve completed the process, you can publish your listings and wait for booking requests to come in, unless you’ve enabled guests to instantly book your properties without requiring your approval. In this case, you’ll receive direct reservations rather than requests. 

Travelers will generally search for rentals based on date, location and the number of guests in their party, but they can also apply a variety of additional filters, like room type, amenities and facilities. 

Initial communication with prospective guests will take place through the channel inbox. With some platforms, once a booking has been made, guests will be able to access the contact information you’ve provided and can then reach out to you personally, either via phone, email or SMS. 

How Do I Get Paid for Bookings Made Through OTAs?

Payment policies vary across channels. While some channels process payments on your behalf and then release your cut of the revenue at a certain stage in the reservation, others may allow you to process the payments independently. Hosts can choose how they wish to be paid (i.e. via credit card or bank transfer). 

How Do I Get Reviews?

After your guests check out, it is a good idea to kindly request that they review you on the original booking channel, as prospective guests often base their booking decisions on other guests’ reviews. In some cases, the channel will reach out on your behalf and ask guests to rate their experiences. 

You will often be prompted to review your guests as well since guest reviews give hosts some indication of how trustworthy and responsible guests are before accepting their booking requests. 

Read more about Vacation Rental Management Software

What to Include in Your OTA Listing Profile The Most Popular OTAs for Short-Term and Vacation Rentals How to List and Manage Rentals on Multiple OTAs

See Guesty in Action

+39 0473 538800 Zona industriale 1/5 - Eurocenter . 39011 Lana South Tyrol Italy [email protected] www.additive.eu . VAT-ID IT02476330218

Online travel agencies (OTAs) offer users the possibility to book their holidays online. Well-known platforms such as Booking, HRS, or Expedia provide additional information like hotel reviews, travel tips, or package holidays. Often OTAs also act as tour operators. Hotels and tourism-related businesses can register to reach potential guests. In order to do so, information such as room availability and prices must be provided. If a stay is booked through the online travel agency, usually the hotel or tourism-related business has to pay a commission fee. Nowadays the majority of reservations are made via online travel agencies, transforming them into an important distribution channel for tourism businesses.

• English (CA)
• Deutsch (DE)
• Deutsch (CH)

The 10 best online travel agencies in 2024

The top 10 online travel agencies.

• Booking.com
• Lastminute.com

Best online travel agencies for business travel

1. travelperk.

Main offerings and features:

• Industry-leading travel inventory
• Flexible booking with FlexiPerk
• Safety alerts with TravelCare
• Integrated travel policy & approval flows
• Centralized invoicing
• Easy & real-time expense reports
• Carbon offsetting with GreenPerk
• 24/7 fast customer support in target 15s
• VAT reclaim
• Integration with 3rd party tools , such as expense management or HR software like Expensify and BambooHR

Save time and money on your business travel with TravelPerk

2. sap concur.

• Works with some of the biggest brands
• Easy tracking and reporting of expenses for expense reports
• Many connected apps, such as Uber and Airbnb for cars and hotels
• One solution for a variety of business travel spending

Click below to compare both platforms’ features and benefits

• Ample integrations
• Award-winning mobile app
• Employee-centric travel management

Click below for a more detailed comparison between both platforms:

Best online travel agencies for leisure travel, 1. booking.com.

• Intuitive booking tool and website
• Flight + Hotel booking for easily planning trips with no cross-referencing travel websites
• Simple car rental options and taxi hire
• Available in over 40 different languages and offers over half a million properties across 207 countries
• You can book experiences in your destination city to entertain you on your travels
• Genius rewards program

• Simple interface and booking tool
• Deals when making more than one booking
• 38 different languages and offers a 24-hour, multilingual customer support service
• Free cancellation within 24 hours of booking
• Millions of reviews to help make your decision

3. Lastminute.com

• Filter hotels according to budgets, star ratings, guest ratings, board types, and more
• ATOL protection on flight + hotel bundles
• Flash sales for last-minute deals
• Payment plans to spread out the cost of travel
• Extra entertainment booking for your trips, like theatrical productions and day trips
• Gift cards for gifting travel

• Expedia rewards for hotels, cars, and more
• Experienced support
• Compare cruise lines
• Big savings when booking flights, hotels, and car
• Operates in nearly 70 countries and in over 35 different languages
• Luxury travel options

• Book hotels, flights, cars, and bundles
• 24/7 support
• Lower prices on the app
• Great last-minute deals for spontaneous travel

6. Bookmundi

Best online travel agencies for flights

1. skyscanner.

• Super flexible booking filters
• Cheaper flights and hotels than other OTAs
• Price alerts for travel routes of interest
• Easy-to-use booking tool and UI
• Hundreds of location and currency options
• One-way, return, and multi-city travel options

2. Kiwi.com

• Simple flight booking tool
• Partnerships with Booking.com and Rentalcars.com
• Discover deals anywhere with the option to open up your search
• Easy-to-use app

How do online travel agencies work?

What are the advantages of booking through an online travel agency.

• Access to comparison tools
• Peer reviews to help you with your decisions
• Flexible cancellation policies
• All your travel in one place
• Local flights and deals

Rewards programs

Comparison tools, peer reviews, flexible cancellation.

Flexiperk: Cancel anytime, anywhere. Get a minimum of 80% of your money back.

One account for all of your travel needs, a local approach to global travel, wrapping up.

Make business travel simpler. Forever.

• See our platform in action . Trusted by thousands of companies worldwide, TravelPerk makes business travel simpler to manage with more flexibility, full control of spending with easy reporting, and options to offset your carbon footprint.
• Find hundreds of resources on all things business travel, from tips on traveling more sustainably, to advice on setting up a business travel policy, and managing your expenses. Our latest e-books and blog posts have you covered.
• Never miss another update. Stay in touch with us on social for the latest product releases, upcoming events, and articles fresh off the press.

Speak to a travel expert

Want to explore by yourself?

8 best business travel management companies in Singapore

​​The 8 best travel & expense management software platforms in 2024

8 best business travel management companies in Hong Kong

• Business Travel Management
• Offset Carbon Footprint
• Flexible travel
• Travelperk Sustainability Policy
• Corporate Travel Resources
• Corporate Travel Glossary
• For Travel Managers
• For Finance Teams
• For Travelers
• Thoughts from TravelPerk
• Careers Hiring
• User Reviews
• Integrations
• Privacy Center
• Help Center
• Privacy Policy
• Cookies Policy
• Modern Slavery Act | Statement
• Supplier Code of Conduct

Russia Travel Blog  | All about Russia in English

• About our blog
• RussiaTrek.org

Sidebar →

• Architecture
• Entertainment
• RussiaTrek.org News

• Send us a tip with a message
• Support RussiaTrek.org
• Travel Guide to Ukraine
• Comments RSS

← Sidebar

The trains and stations of the Moscow Metro

2 Comments · Posted by Alex Smirnov in Cities , Travel , Video

The Moscow Metro is the third most intensive subway system in the world after Tokyo and Seoul subways. The first line was opened on May 15, 1935. Since 1955, the metro has the name of V.I. Lenin.

The system consists of 12 lines with a total length of 305.7 km. Forty four stations are recognized cultural heritage. The largest passenger traffic is in rush hours from 8:00 to 9:00 and from 18:00 to 19:00.

Cellular communication is available on most of the stations of the Moscow Metro. In March 2012, a free Wi-Fi appeared in the Circle Line train. The Moscow Metro is open to passengers from 5:20 to 01:00. The average interval between trains is 2.5 minutes.

The fare is paid by using contactless tickets and contactless smart cards, the passes to the stations are controlled by automatic turnstiles. Ticket offices and ticket vending machines can be found in station vestibules.

Tags:  Moscow city

You might also like:

The bridge over Zolotoy Rog Bay in Vladivostok

The views of St. Petersburg from the TV tower >>

Tomás · August 27, 2012 at 11:34 pm

The Moscow metro stations are the best That I know, cars do not.

Alberto Calvo · September 25, 2016 at 8:57 pm

Great videos! Moscow Metro is just spectacular. I actually visited Moscow myself quite recently and wrote a post about my top 7 stations, please check it out and let me know what you think! :)

http://www.arwtravels.com/blog/moscow-metro-top-7-stations-you-cant-miss

Leave a Reply

XHTML: You can use these tags: <a href="" title=""> <abbr title=""> <acronym title=""> <b> <blockquote cite=""> <cite> <code> <del datetime=""> <em> <i> <q cite=""> <s> <strike> <strong>

• February 2024
• January 2024
• December 2023
• November 2023
• October 2023
• September 2023
• August 2023

• Articles   >

The Moscow Metro Museum of Art: 10 Must-See Stations

There are few times one can claim having been on the subway all afternoon and loving it, but the Moscow Metro provides just that opportunity.  While many cities boast famous public transport systems—New York’s subway, London’s underground, San Salvador’s chicken buses—few warrant hours of exploration.  Moscow is different: Take one ride on the Metro, and you’ll find out that this network of railways can be so much more than point A to B drudgery.

The Metro began operating in 1935 with just thirteen stations, covering less than seven miles, but it has since grown into the world’s third busiest transit system ( Tokyo is first ), spanning about 200 miles and offering over 180 stops along the way.  The construction of the Metro began under Joseph Stalin’s command, and being one of the USSR’s most ambitious building projects, the iron-fisted leader instructed designers to create a place full of svet (radiance) and svetloe budushchee (a radiant future), a palace for the people and a tribute to the Mother nation.

Consequently, the Metro is among the most memorable attractions in Moscow.  The stations provide a unique collection of public art, comparable to anything the city’s galleries have to offer and providing a sense of the Soviet era, which is absent from the State National History Museum.  Even better, touring the Metro delivers palpable, experiential moments, which many of us don’t get standing in front of painting or a case of coins.

Though tours are available , discovering the Moscow Metro on your own provides a much more comprehensive, truer experience, something much less sterile than following a guide.  What better place is there to see the “real” Moscow than on mass transit: A few hours will expose you to characters and caricatures you’ll be hard-pressed to find dining near the Bolshoi Theater.  You become part of the attraction, hear it in the screech of the train, feel it as hurried commuters brush by: The Metro sucks you beneath the city and churns you into the mix.

With the recommendations of our born-and-bred Muscovite students, my wife Emma and I have just taken a self-guided tour of what some locals consider the top ten stations of the Moscow Metro. What most satisfied me about our Metro tour was the sense of adventure .  I loved following our route on the maps of the wagon walls as we circled the city, plotting out the course to the subsequent stops; having the weird sensation of being underground for nearly four hours; and discovering the next cavern of treasures, playing Indiana Jones for the afternoon, piecing together fragments of Russia’s mysterious history.  It’s the ultimate interactive museum.

Top Ten Stations (In order of appearance)

Kievskaya station.

Kievskaya Station went public in March of 1937, the rails between it and Park Kultury Station being the first to cross the Moscow River.  Kievskaya is full of mosaics depicting aristocratic scenes of Russian life, with great cameo appearances by Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin.  Each work has a Cyrillic title/explanation etched in the marble beneath it; however, if your Russian is rusty, you can just appreciate seeing familiar revolutionary dates like 1905 ( the Russian Revolution ) and 1917 ( the October Revolution ).

Mayakovskaya Station

Mayakovskaya Station ranks in my top three most notable Metro stations. Mayakovskaya just feels right, done Art Deco but no sense of gaudiness or pretention.  The arches are adorned with rounded chrome piping and create feeling of being in a jukebox, but the roof’s expansive mosaics of the sky are the real showstopper.  Subjects cleverly range from looking up at a high jumper, workers atop a building, spires of Orthodox cathedrals, to nimble aircraft humming by, a fleet of prop planes spelling out CCCP in the bluest of skies.

Novoslobodskaya Station

Novoslobodskaya is the Metro’s unique stained glass station.  Each column has its own distinctive panels of colorful glass, most of them with a floral theme, some of them capturing the odd sailor, musician, artist, gardener, or stenographer in action.  The glass is framed in Art Deco metalwork, and there is the lovely aspect of discovering panels in the less frequented haunches of the hall (on the trackside, between the incoming staircases).  Novosblod is, I’ve been told, the favorite amongst out-of-town visitors.

Komsomolskaya Station

Komsomolskaya Station is one of palatial grandeur.  It seems both magnificent and obligatory, like the presidential palace of a colonial city.  The yellow ceiling has leafy, white concrete garland and a series of golden military mosaics accenting the tile mosaics of glorified Russian life.  Switching lines here, the hallway has an Alice-in-Wonderland feel, impossibly long with decorative tile walls, culminating in a very old station left in a remarkable state of disrepair, offering a really tangible glimpse behind the palace walls.

Dostoevskaya Station

Dostoevskaya is a tribute to the late, great hero of Russian literature .  The station at first glance seems bare and unimpressive, a stark marble platform without a whiff of reassembled chips of tile.  However, two columns have eerie stone inlay collages of scenes from Dostoevsky’s work, including The Idiot , The Brothers Karamazov , and Crime and Punishment.   Then, standing at the center of the platform, the marble creates a kaleidoscope of reflections.  At the entrance, there is a large, inlay portrait of the author.

Chkalovskaya Station

Chkalovskaya does space Art Deco style (yet again).  Chrome borders all.  Passageways with curvy overhangs create the illusion of walking through the belly of a chic, new-age spacecraft.  There are two (kos)mosaics, one at each end, with planetary subjects.  Transferring here brings you above ground, where some rather elaborate metalwork is on display.  By name similarity only, I’d expected Komsolskaya Station to deliver some kosmonaut décor; instead, it was Chkalovskaya that took us up to the space station.

Elektrozavodskaya Station

Elektrozavodskaya is full of marble reliefs of workers, men and women, laboring through the different stages of industry.  The superhuman figures are round with muscles, Hollywood fit, and seemingly undeterred by each Herculean task they respectively perform.  The station is chocked with brass, from hammer and sickle light fixtures to beautiful, angular framework up the innards of the columns.  The station’s art pieces are less clever or extravagant than others, but identifying the different stages of industry is entertaining.

Baumanskaya Statio

Baumanskaya Station is the only stop that wasn’t suggested by the students.  Pulling in, the network of statues was just too enticing: Out of half-circle depressions in the platform’s columns, the USSR’s proud and powerful labor force again flaunts its success.  Pilots, blacksmiths, politicians, and artists have all congregated, posing amongst more Art Deco framing.  At the far end, a massive Soviet flag dons the face of Lenin and banners for ’05, ’17, and ‘45.  Standing in front of the flag, you can play with the echoing roof.

Ploshchad Revolutsii Station

Novokuznetskaya Station

Novokuznetskaya Station finishes off this tour, more or less, where it started: beautiful mosaics.  This station recalls the skyward-facing pieces from Mayakovskaya (Station #2), only with a little larger pictures in a more cramped, very trafficked area.  Due to a line of street lamps in the center of the platform, it has the atmosphere of a bustling market.  The more inventive sky scenes include a man on a ladder, women picking fruit, and a tank-dozer being craned in.  The station’s also has a handsome black-and-white stone mural.

Here is a map and a brief description of our route:

Start at (1)Kievskaya on the “ring line” (look for the squares at the bottom of the platform signs to help you navigate—the ring line is #5, brown line) and go north to Belorusskaya, make a quick switch to the Dark Green/#2 line, and go south one stop to (2)Mayakovskaya.  Backtrack to the ring line—Brown/#5—and continue north, getting off at (3)Novosblodskaya and (4)Komsolskaya.  At Komsolskaya Station, transfer to the Red/#1 line, go south for two stops to Chistye Prudy, and get on the Light Green/#10 line going north.  Take a look at (5)Dostoevskaya Station on the northern segment of Light Green/#10 line then change directions and head south to (6)Chkalovskaya, which offers a transfer to the Dark Blue/#3 line, going west, away from the city center.  Have a look (7)Elektroskaya Station before backtracking into the center of Moscow, stopping off at (8)Baumskaya, getting off the Dark Blue/#3 line at (9)Ploschad Revolyutsii.  Change to the Dark Green/#2 line and go south one stop to see (10)Novokuznetskaya Station.

Check out our new Moscow Indie Travel Guide , book a flight to Moscow and read 10 Bars with Views Worth Blowing the Budget For

Jonathon Engels, formerly a patron saint of misadventure, has been stumbling his way across cultural borders since 2005 and is currently volunteering in the mountains outside of Antigua, Guatemala.  For more of his work, visit his website and blog .

Photo credits:   SergeyRod , all others courtesy of the author and may not be used without permission

Russia's Nuclear Deterrent Command Center Imperiled by Winter Freeze—Report

A Russian nuclear deterrent command center in Moscow has been imperiled by power outages that have impacted more than one-quarter of the region's cities amid freezing temperatures, a Russian Telegram channel has reported.

The VChK-OGPU outlet, which purports to have inside information from Russian security forces, reported that the 820th Main Center for Missile Attack Warnings—part of the Russian Space Forces, a branch of the country's Aerospace Forces—near Solnechnogorsk in Moscow is without power.

It serves as the space forces early warning network against potential ballistic missile attacks.

The development comes as Russians are reported to be suffering from power outages in their homes in the Moscow region caused by technical issues at plants amid subzero temperatures.

On January 4, a heating main burst at the Klimovsk Specialized Ammunition Plant in the town of Podolsk, which is about 30 miles south of central Moscow. Since then, tens of thousands of Russians are reported to have no heating in their homes.

Affected areas include the cities of Khimki, Balashikha, Lobnya, Lyubertsy, Podolsk, Chekhov and Naro-Fominsk, a map published by a Russian Telegram channel and shared on other social media sites shows.

Other Russian media outlets reported that in Moscow, residents of Balashikha, Elektrostal, Solnechnogorsk, Dmitrov, Domodedovo, Troitsk, Taldom, Orekhovo-Zuyevo, Krasnogorsk, Pushkino, Ramenskoye, Voskresensk, Losino-Petrovsky and Selyatino are also without power.

The Telegram channel said that at the 820th Main Center for Missile Attack Warnings, "the crew...is on duty around the clock."

"It is here that the decision on a retaliatory nuclear strike is executed," the channel said.

Newsweek could not independently verify the report and has reached out to the Russian Defense Ministry by email for comment.

Power outages have also been reported in Russia's second-largest city, St. Petersburg, in the country's western Voronezh region, in the southwest city of Volgograd, and in Rostov, which borders Ukraine, a country that Russia has been at war with since February 24, 2022.

On Sunday, two shopping malls in St. Petersburg were forced to close because of problems with light and heating, reported local news outlet 78.ru. Hundreds of other homes in the city have had no electricity, water or heating for days amid temperatures of -25 C (-13 F).

Russian authorities have also been forced to compensate passengers of a train that ran from Samara to St. Petersburg (a 20-hour journey) without heating during -30 C (-22 F) temperatures. Videos circulating on social media showed carriage windows frozen over. A passenger also said the toilet didn't work during the trip because of frozen pipes.

Do you have a tip on a world news story that Newsweek should be covering? Do you have a question about the Russia-Ukraine war? Let us know via [email protected].

Related Articles

• Russia Maps Show 25% of Moscow Without Power Amid Winter Freeze 'Emergency'
• Serbian Mercenary Turns on Russian Leaders: 'They Treat Us Like Cattle'
• Winter Freeze Threats Come Back To Bite Russia As Power Outages Spread

Start your unlimited Newsweek trial

how are critical thinking decision making and planning related

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons
• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

5.3: Using Critical Thinking Skills- Decision Making and Problem Solving

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 24260

Introduction

In previous lessons, you learned about characteristics of critical thinkers and information literacy. In this module, you will learn how to put those skills into action through the important processes of decision making and problem solving.

As with the process of developing information literacy, asking questions is an important part of decision making and problem solving. Thinking is born of questions. Questions wake us up. Questions alert us to hidden assumptions. Questions promote curiosity and create new distinctions. Questions open up options that otherwise go unexplored. Besides, teachers love questions.

We make decisions all the time, whether we realize it or not. Even avoiding decisions is a form of decision making. The student who puts off studying for a test until the last minute, for example, might really be saying, “I’ve decided this course is not important” or “I’ve decided not to give this course much time.”

Decisions are specific and lead to focused action. When we decide, we narrow down. We give up actions that are inconsistent with our decision.

In addition to decision making, critical thinking skills are important to solving problems. We encounter problems every single day, and having a solid process in place is important to solving them.

At the end of the lesson, you will learn how to put your critical thinking skills to use by reviewing an example of how critical thinking skills can help with making those everyday decisions.

Using Critical Thinking Skills: Asking Questions

Questions have practical power. Asking for directions can shave hours off a trip. Asking a librarian for help can save hours of research time. Asking how to address an instructor—by first name or formal title—can change your relationship with that person. Asking your academic advisor a question can alter your entire education. Asking people about their career plans can alter your career plans.

You can use the following strategies to develop questions for problem solving and decision making:

Ask questions that create possibilities. At any moment, you can ask a question that opens up a new possibility for someone.

• Suppose a friend walks up to you and says, “People just never listen to me.” You listen carefully. Then you say, “Let me make sure I understand. Who, specifically, doesn’t listen to you? And how do you know they’re not listening?”
• Another friend tells you, “I just lost my job to someone who has less experience. That should never happen.” You respond, “Wow, that’s hard. I’m sorry you lost your job. Who can help you find another job?”
• A relative seeks your advice. “My mother-in-law makes me mad,” she says. “You’re having a hard time with this person,” you say. “What does she say and do when you feel mad at her? And are there times when you don’t get mad at her?”

These kinds of questions—asked with compassion and a sense of timing—can help people move from complaining about problems to solving them.

Discover new questions. Students sometimes say, “I don’t know what questions to ask.” Consider the following ways to create questions about any subject you want to study or about any

area of your life that you want to change:

• Let your pen start moving. Sometimes you can access a deeper level of knowledge by taking out your pen, putting it on a piece of paper, and writing down questions—even before you know what to write. Don’t think. Just watch the pen move across the paper. Notice what appears. The results might be surprising.
• Ask about what’s missing . Another way to invent useful questions is to notice what’s missing from your life and then ask how to supply it. For example, if you want to take better notes, you can write, “What’s missing is skill in note taking. How can I gain more skill in taking notes?” If you always feel rushed, you can write, “What’s missing is time. How do I create enough time in my day to actually do the things that I say I want to do?”
• Pretend to be someone else. Another way to invent questions is first to think of someone you greatly respect. Then pretend you’re that person. Ask the questions you think she would ask.
• What can I do when ... an instructor calls on me in class and I have no idea what to say? When a teacher doesn’t show up for class on time? When I feel overwhelmed with assignments?
• How can I ... take the kind of courses that I want? Expand my career options? Become much more effective as a student, starting today?
• When do I ... decide on a major? Transfer to another school? Meet with an instructor to discuss an upcoming term paper?
• What else do I want to know about ... my academic plan? My career plan? My options for job hunting? My friends? My relatives? My spouse?
• Who can I ask about ... my career options? My major? My love life? My values and purpose in life?

Many times you can quickly generate questions by simply asking yourself, “What else do I want to know?” Ask this question immediately after you read a paragraph in a book or listen to someone speak.

Start from the assumption that you are brilliant. Then ask questions to unlock your brilliance.

Using Critical Thinking Skills in Decision Making

As you develop your critical thinking skills, you can apply them as you make decisions. The following suggestions can help in your decision-making process:

Recognize decisions. Decisions are more than wishes or desires. There’s a world of difference between “I wish I could be a better student” and “I will take more powerful notes, read with greater retention, and review my class notes daily.” Deciding to eat fruit for dessert instead of ice cream rules out the next trip to the ice cream store.

Establish priorities. Some decisions are trivial. No matter what the outcome, your life is not affected much. Other decisions can shape your circumstances for years. Devote more time and energy to the decisions with big outcomes.

Base decisions on a life plan. The benefit of having long-term goals for our lives is that they provide a basis for many of our daily decisions. Being certain about what we want to accomplish this year and this month makes today’s choices more clear.

Balance learning styles in decision making. To make decisions more effectively, use all four modes of learning explained in a previous lesson. The key is to balance reflection with action, and thinking with experience. First, take the time to think creatively, and generate many options. Then think critically about the possible consequences of each option before choosing one. Remember, however, that thinking is no substitute for experience. Act on your chosen option, and notice what happens. If you’re not getting the results you want, then quickly return to creative thinking to invent new options.

Choose an overall strategy. Every time you make a decision, you choose a strategy—even when you’re not aware of it. Effective decision makers can articulate and choose from among several strategies. For example:

• Find all of the available options, and choose one deliberately. Save this strategy for times when you have a relatively small number of options, each of which leads to noticeably different results.
• Find all of the available options, and choose one randomly. This strategy can be risky. Save it for times when your options are basically similar and fairness is the main issue.
• Limit the options, and then choose. When deciding which search engine to use, visit many search sites and then narrow the list down to two or three from which to choose.

Use time as an ally. Sometimes we face dilemmas—situations in which any course of action leads to undesirable consequences. In such cases, consider putting a decision on hold. Wait it out. Do nothing until the circumstances change, making one alternative clearly preferable to another.

Use intuition. Some decisions seem to make themselves. A solution pops into your mind, and you gain newfound clarity. Using intuition is not the same as forgetting about the decision or refusing to make it. Intuitive decisions usually arrive after we’ve gathered the relevant facts and faced a problem for some time.

Evaluate your decision. Hindsight is a source of insight. After you act on a decision, observe the consequences over time. Reflect on how well your decision worked and what you might have done differently.

Think of choices. This final suggestion involves some creative thinking. Consider that the word decide derives from the same roots as suicide and homicide . In the spirit of those words, a decision forever “kills” all other options. That’s kind of heavy. Instead, use the word choice , and see whether it frees up your thinking. When you choose , you express a preference for one option over others. However, those options remain live possibilities for the future. Choose for today, knowing that as you gain more wisdom and experience, you can choose again.

Using Critical Thinking Skills in Problem Solving

Think of problem solving as a process with four Ps : Define the problem , generate possibilities ,

create a plan , and perform your plan.

Step 1: Define the problem. To define a problem effectively, understand what a problem is—a mismatch between what you want and what you have. Problem solving is all about reducing the gap between these two factors.

Tell the truth about what’s present in your life right now, without shame or blame. For example: “I often get sleepy while reading my physics assignments, and after closing the book I cannot remember what I just read.”

Next, describe in detail what you want. Go for specifics: “I want to remain alert as I read about physics. I also want to accurately summarize each chapter I read.”

Remember that when we define a problem in limiting ways, our solutions merely generate new problems. As Albert Einstein said, “The world we have made is a result of the level of thinking we have done thus far. We cannot solve problems at the same level at which we created them” (Calaprice 2000).

This idea has many applications for success in school. An example is the student who struggles with note taking. The problem, she thinks, is that her notes are too sketchy. The logical solution, she decides, is to take more notes; her new goal is to write down almost everything her instructors say. No matter how fast and furiously she writes, she cannot capture all of the instructors’ comments.

Consider what happens when this student defines the problem in a new way. After more thought, she decides that her dilemma is not the quantity of her notes but their quality . She adopts a new format for taking notes, dividing her notepaper into two columns. In the right-hand column, she writes down only the main points of each lecture. In the left-hand column, she notes two or three supporting details for each point.

Over time, this student makes the joyous discovery that there are usually just three or four core ideas to remember from each lecture. She originally thought the solution was to take more notes. What really worked was taking notes in a new way.

Step 2: Generate possibilities. Now put on your creative thinking hat. Open up. Brainstorm as many possible solutions to the problem as you can. At this stage, quantity counts. As you generate possibilities, gather relevant facts. For example, when you’re faced with a dilemma about what courses to take next semester, get information on class times, locations, and instructors. If you haven’t decided which summer job offer to accept, gather information on salary, benefits, and working conditions.

Step 3: Create a plan. After rereading your problem definition and list of possible solutions, choose the solution that seems most workable. Think about specific actions that will reduce the gap between what you have and what you want. Visualize the steps you will take to make this solution a reality, and arrange them in chronological order. To make your plan even more powerful, put it in writing.

Step 4: Perform your plan. This step gets you off your chair and out into the world. Now you actually do what you have planned.

Ultimately, your skill in solving problems lies in how well you perform your plan. Through the quality of your actions, you become the architect of your own success.

When facing problems, experiment with these four Ps, and remember that the order of steps is not absolute. Also remember that any solution has the potential to create new problems. If that happens, cycle through the four Ps of problem solving again.

Critical Thinking Skills in Action: Thinking About Your Major, Part 1

One decision that troubles many students in higher education is the choice of a major. Weighing the benefits, costs, and outcomes of a possible major is an intellectual challenge. This choice is an opportunity to apply your critical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving skills. The following suggestions will guide you through this seemingly overwhelming process.

The first step is to discover options. You can use the following suggestions to discover options for choosing your major:

Follow the fun. Perhaps you look forward to attending one of your classes and even like completing the assignments. This is a clue to your choice of major.

See whether you can find lasting patterns in the subjects and extracurricular activities that you’ve enjoyed over the years. Look for a major that allows you to continue and expand on these experiences.

Also, sit down with a stack of 3 × 5 cards and brainstorm answers to the following questions:

• What do you enjoy doing most with your unscheduled time?
• Imagine that you’re at a party and having a fascinating conversation. What is this conversation about?
• What kind of problems do you enjoy solving—those that involve people? Products? Ideas?
• What interests are revealed by your choices of reading material, television shows, and other entertainment?
• What would an ideal day look like for you? Describe where you would live, who would be with you, and what you would do throughout the day. Do any of these visions suggest a possible major?

Questions like these can uncover a “fun factor” that energizes you to finish the work of completing a major.

Consider your abilities. In choosing a major, ability counts as much as interest. In addition to considering what you enjoy, think about times and places when you excelled. List the courses that you aced, the work assignments that you mastered, and the hobbies that led to rewards or recognition. Let your choice of a major reflect a discovery of your passions and potentials.

Use formal techniques for self-discovery. Explore questionnaires and inventories that are designed to correlate your interests with specific majors. Examples include the Strong Interest Inventory and the Self-Directed Search. Your academic advisor or someone in your school’s career planning office can give you more details about these and related assessments. For some fun, take several of them and meet with an advisor to interpret the results. Remember inventories can help you gain self-knowledge, and other people can offer valuable perspectives. However, what you do with all this input is entirely up to you.

Critical Thinking Skills in Action: Thinking About Your Major, Part 2

As you review the following additional suggestions of discovering options, think about what strategies you already use in your own decision-making process. Also think about what new strategies you might try in the future.

Link to long-term goals. Your choice of a major can fall into place once you determine what you want in life. Before you choose a major, back up to a bigger picture. List your core values, such as contributing to society, achieving financial security and professional recognition, enjoying good health, or making time for fun. Also write down specific goals that you want to accomplish 5 years, 10 years, or even 50 years from today.

Many students find that the prospect of getting what they want in life justifies all of the time, money, and day-to-day effort invested in going to school. Having a major gives you a powerful incentive for attending classes, taking part in discussions, reading textbooks, writing papers, and completing other assignments. When you see a clear connection between finishing school and creating the life of your dreams, the daily tasks of higher education become charged with meaning.

Ask other people. Key people in your life might have valuable suggestions about your choice of major. Ask for their ideas, and listen with an open mind. At the same time, distance yourself from any pressure to choose a major or career that fails to interest you. If you make a choice solely on the basis of the expectations of other people, you could end up with a major or even a career you don’t enjoy.

Gather information. Check your school’s catalog or website for a list of available majors. Here is a gold mine of information. Take a quick glance, and highlight all the majors that interest you. Then talk to students who have declared these majors. Also read the descriptions of courses required for these majors. Do you get excited about the chance to enroll in them? Pay attention to your gut feelings.

Also chat with instructors who teach courses in a specific major. Ask for copies of their class syllabi. Go to the bookstore and browse the required texts. Based on all of this information, write a list of prospective majors. Discuss them with an academic advisor and someone at your school’s career-planning center.

Invent a major. When choosing a major, you might not need to limit yourself to those listed in your school catalog. Many schools now have flexible programs that allow for independent study. Through such programs, you might be able to combine two existing majors or invent an entirely new one of your own.

Consider a complementary minor. You can add flexibility to your academic program by choosing a minor to complement or contrast with your major. The student who wants to be a minister could opt for a minor in English; all of those courses in composition can help in writing sermons. Or the student with a major in psychology might choose a minor in business administration, with the idea of managing a counseling service some day. An effective choice of a minor can expand your skills and career options.

Think critically about the link between your major and your career. Your career goals might have a significant impact on your choice of major.

You could pursue a rewarding career by choosing among several different majors. Even students planning to apply for law school or medical school have flexibility in their choice of majors. In addition, after graduation, many people tend to be employed in jobs that have little relationship to their major. And you might choose a career in the future that is unrelated to any currently available major.

Critical Thinking Skills in Action: Thinking About Your Major, Part 3

Once you have discovered all of your options, you can move on to the next step in the process— making a trial choice.

Make a Trial Choice

Pretend that you have to choose a major today. Based on the options for a major that you’ve already discovered, write down the first three ideas that come to mind. Review the list for a few minutes, and then choose one.

Evaluate Your Trial Choice

When you’ve made a trial choice of major, take on the role of a scientist. Treat your choice as a hypothesis, and then design a series of experiments to evaluate and test it. For example:

• Schedule office meetings with instructors who teach courses in the major. Ask about required course work and career options in the field.
• Discuss your trial choice with an academic advisor or career counselor.
• Enroll in a course related to your possible major. Remember that introductory courses might not give you a realistic picture of the workload involved in advanced courses. Also, you might not be able to register for certain courses until you’ve actually declared a related major.
• Find a volunteer experience, internship, part-time job, or service-learning experience related to the major.
• Interview students who have declared the same major. Ask them in detail about their experiences and suggestions for success.
• Interview people who work in a field related to the major and “shadow” them—that is, spend time with those people during their workday.
• Think about whether you can complete your major given the amount of time and money that you plan to invest in higher education.
• Consider whether declaring this major would require a transfer to another program or even another school.

If your “experiments” confirm your choice of major, celebrate that fact. If they result in choosing a new major, celebrate that outcome as well.

Also remember that higher education represents a safe place to test your choice of major—and to change your mind. As you sort through your options, help is always available from administrators, instructors, advisors, and peers.

Choose Again

Keep your choice of a major in perspective. There is probably no single “correct” choice. Your unique collection of skills is likely to provide the basis for majoring in several fields.

Odds are that you’ll change your major at least once—and that you’ll change careers several times during your life. One benefit of higher education is mobility. You gain the general skills and knowledge that can help you move into a new major or career field at any time.

Viewing a major as a one-time choice that determines your entire future can raise your stress levels. Instead, look at choosing a major as the start of a continuing path that involves discovery, choice, and passionate action.

As you review this example of how you can use critical thinking to make a decision about choosing your major, think about how you will use your critical thinking to make decisions and solve problems in the future.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Working with sources
• What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

Published on May 30, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment .

To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources .

Critical thinking skills help you to:

• Identify credible sources
• Evaluate and respond to arguments
• Assess alternative viewpoints
• Test hypotheses against relevant criteria

Table of contents

Why is critical thinking important, critical thinking examples, how to think critically, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about critical thinking.

Critical thinking is important for making judgments about sources of information and forming your own arguments. It emphasizes a rational, objective, and self-aware approach that can help you to identify credible sources and strengthen your conclusions.

Critical thinking is important in all disciplines and throughout all stages of the research process . The types of evidence used in the sciences and in the humanities may differ, but critical thinking skills are relevant to both.

In academic writing , critical thinking can help you to determine whether a source:

• Is free from research bias
• Provides evidence to support its research findings
• Considers alternative viewpoints

Outside of academia, critical thinking goes hand in hand with information literacy to help you form opinions rationally and engage independently and critically with popular media.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Critical thinking can help you to identify reliable sources of information that you can cite in your research paper . It can also guide your own research methods and inform your own arguments.

Outside of academia, critical thinking can help you to be aware of both your own and others’ biases and assumptions.

Academic examples

However, when you compare the findings of the study with other current research, you determine that the results seem improbable. You analyze the paper again, consulting the sources it cites.

You notice that the research was funded by the pharmaceutical company that created the treatment. Because of this, you view its results skeptically and determine that more independent research is necessary to confirm or refute them. Example: Poor critical thinking in an academic context You’re researching a paper on the impact wireless technology has had on developing countries that previously did not have large-scale communications infrastructure. You read an article that seems to confirm your hypothesis: the impact is mainly positive. Rather than evaluating the research methodology, you accept the findings uncritically.

Nonacademic examples

However, you decide to compare this review article with consumer reviews on a different site. You find that these reviews are not as positive. Some customers have had problems installing the alarm, and some have noted that it activates for no apparent reason.

You revisit the original review article. You notice that the words “sponsored content” appear in small print under the article title. Based on this, you conclude that the review is advertising and is therefore not an unbiased source. Example: Poor critical thinking in a nonacademic context You support a candidate in an upcoming election. You visit an online news site affiliated with their political party and read an article that criticizes their opponent. The article claims that the opponent is inexperienced in politics. You accept this without evidence, because it fits your preconceptions about the opponent.

There is no single way to think critically. How you engage with information will depend on the type of source you’re using and the information you need.

However, you can engage with sources in a systematic and critical way by asking certain questions when you encounter information. Like the CRAAP test , these questions focus on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

When encountering information, ask:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert in their field?
• What do they say? Is their argument clear? Can you summarize it?
• When did they say this? Is the source current?
• Where is the information published? Is it an academic article? Is it peer-reviewed ?
• Why did the author publish it? What is their motivation?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence? Does it rely on opinion, speculation, or appeals to emotion ? Do they address alternative arguments?

Critical thinking also involves being aware of your own biases, not only those of others. When you make an argument or draw your own conclusions, you can ask similar questions about your own writing:

• Am I only considering evidence that supports my preconceptions?
• Is my argument expressed clearly and backed up with credible sources?
• Would I be convinced by this argument coming from someone else?

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

Scribbr Citation Checker New

The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
• Incorrect usage of “et al.”
• Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
• Missing reference entries

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

Critical thinking skills include the ability to:

You can assess information and arguments critically by asking certain questions about the source. You can use the CRAAP test , focusing on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

Ask questions such as:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence?

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Information literacy refers to a broad range of skills, including the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources of information effectively.

Being information literate means that you:

• Know how to find credible sources
• Use relevant sources to inform your research
• Understand what constitutes plagiarism
• Know how to cite your sources correctly

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search, interpret, and recall information in a way that aligns with our pre-existing values, opinions, or beliefs. It refers to the ability to recollect information best when it amplifies what we already believe. Relatedly, we tend to forget information that contradicts our opinions.

Although selective recall is a component of confirmation bias, it should not be confused with recall bias.

On the other hand, recall bias refers to the differences in the ability between study participants to recall past events when self-reporting is used. This difference in accuracy or completeness of recollection is not related to beliefs or opinions. Rather, recall bias relates to other factors, such as the length of the recall period, age, and the characteristics of the disease under investigation.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Ryan, E. (2023, May 31). What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 8, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/critical-thinking/

Is this article helpful?

Eoghan Ryan

Other students also liked, student guide: information literacy | meaning & examples, what are credible sources & how to spot them | examples, applying the craap test & evaluating sources.

• Skip to primary navigation
• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar
• Skip to footer

Global Cognition

Critical thinking in decision making.

by Winston Sieck updated September 12, 2021

Critical thinking is often talked about as a stand-alone activity. Like some other individual activities, thinking critically may just feel good. Yet, critical thinking seems most useful when it aids other cognitive processes, such as applying critical thinking in decision making.

Anne Helsdingen from the Open University of the Netherlands and her colleagues studied an interesting issue about critical thinking in decision making. They wanted to know whether teaching critical thinking skills can improve judgment and decision making in general.

Helsdingen and her team define critical thinking as reasoned thinking with a purpose. They also describe some core critical thinking skills and abilities, such as being able to:

• Appreciate that your own opinions may be wrong
• Accept statements as true even when they conflict with your own views
• Temporarily adopt an initial position with which you disagree, and then reason from that starting point

A challenge, according to these researchers, is how to teach skills for critical thinking in decision making so that they transfer to new decision making problems. Transfer means being able to apply what you have learned to new tasks or new situations.

To tackle this problem, they start with a useful cognitive model of how decisions are made . Numerous researchers have worked with similar versions of the model of the years. One version is called “explanation-based decision making,” or the “story model.”

The idea is that people encounter situations. When they do, they recognize important parts of the situation from past experience. They then create a story (or explanation) about what’s going on and what will happen. They make decisions based on their story, and how things have turned out in similar stories past.

A problem with making decisions this way is that our stories tend to be less complete than we think – a failure of metacognition. We also overlook inconsistent details because we’re sucked in by the good story. According to Helsdingen, we might improve our intuitive approach by bringing critical thinking in the decision making process.

The researchers tested a method for including critical thinking in decision making. First, they explained the story model of decision making. Then, they prompted the learners to reflect on their story and thinking critically about it. Some of the questions they included to prompt critical thinking were:

• Do you have all the necessary information?
• Is there any conflict in the evidence?
• The devil’s advocate tells you that your story is wrong. Make up an alternative story. Is it more plausible than the original?

The students in the study read through cases about crimes that had been committed. Their job was to decide on the priority of each case for the police. They got feedback, so they could learn what makes cases more important in police work.

Some of the students received the critical thinking skills training while making these decisions. Others did not.

How well they made these crime decisions was not the most important thing, though. The main thing was how well they would do in a different situation after learning about critical thinking in decision making. That is, would their new skills transfer?

The researchers tested for transfer by having the students make different decisions about traffic offenses. The overall results suggested that the training on how to include critical thinking in decision making was effective. The benefits did transfer to the new decision making task.

As you come across decisions that you need to make, pay some attention to the stories you are telling yourself in the process. Use some of the ideas above and other critical thinking skills to improve your story and decision. Writing is also an excellent strategy for making good decisions . It may seem like a bit of extra work at first, but with practice will become more natural for your future decisions.

Image Credit:  Critical thinking asylum

Helsdingen, A., van Gog, T., & van Merriënboer, J. (2011). The effects of practice schedule and critical thinking prompts on learning and transfer of a complex judgment task. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103 (2), 383-398 DOI: 10.1037/a0022370

About Winston Sieck

Dr. Winston Sieck is a cognitive psychologist working to advance the development of thinking skills. He is founder and president of Global Cognition, and director of Thinker Academy .

Reader Interactions

January 13, 2013 at 6:36 pm

Thanks for sharing this research and the ‘story’. We are often asked whether you can learn to be a better critical thinker – I wouldn’t be teaching it if I didn’t believe it to be the case! But it helps to have research to support this belief.

Our work is focused on critical thinking in organizational, workplace settings with all sorts of employees, including managers and executives. My experience is pretty similar to that you gave in the case; in the moment, on a particular case, the ‘decision’ may not be improved.

As the researchers and you point out, the proof is in the pudding. Can people learn and apply simple critical thinking techniques, consistently and effectively, and, does this lead to better outcomes?

We find that it can be overwhelming to try to teach too much at a clip. We boil it down to simple questions, job aids, and worksheets that can help people – especially people working on teams – to establish a common vocabulary, and create an environment that reinforces critical thinking rather than viewing it as generating conflict and controversy.

February 21, 2014 at 4:02 am

I am interested in teaching critical thinking skills to Law Enforcement, specifically to a group of people age 14 to 18 who are interested in pursuing a Law Enforcement Career (The Police Explorer Program) but then later to already established officers.

A law enforcement officer (LEO) is called upon to make decisions and wield power which effect others lives, and they are often required to do this on the spot, with a limited amount of time and information available. They make these decisions every day and I am looking for ways to sharpen their skills and help them make the best decisions possible with the information they have on hand.

I couldn’t help but notice that this study happened to be centered on LEO scenarios. I was wondering if I could adapt this study to a class for young people. Any thoughts?

Also, how could I get the specifics of this study, to include the specific scenarios used?

February 21, 2014 at 9:34 am

That sounds really interesting, Eric. I contacted Anne Helsdingen on your behalf, and shared your contact information with her.

February 28, 2016 at 11:40 pm

For the last five years I have taught CT to serving LEOs, although only slowly at first; it is a sharp departure from traditional police training. While new theories come out on how to fix a profession currently under enormous pressure, many of them have been around for 10 or 20 years whereas CT has been developed over at least 25 centuries. I would be happy to share my work and experiences to to hear of others’ work too.

• Save Your Ammo
• Publications

GC Blog Topics

• Culture & Communication
• Thinking & Deciding

Learning Skills

• Learning Science

Online Courses

• Thinker Academy
• Study Skills Course
• For Parents
• For Teachers

How it works

For Business

Join Mind Tools

Article • 4 min read

Critical Decision-Making Techniques

An overview of some decision making tools.

By the Mind Tools Content Team

Critical thinking is the mental process that individuals go through to reach an answer or a conclusion. The critical thinking process can be a valuable tool in problem-solving and decision-making. Here we look at some of the techniques involved.

Critical thinking is essentially the process of taking information gathered through day-to-day activities such as observation, reflection and reasoning, and, using personal experience and beliefs, analyzing and applying that information to a given situation. Critical thinking tends to be used in conjunction with creative thinking, where the ideas and processes themselves are generated. Critical thinking can then be used to interpret, assess and evaluate these ideas and processes.

Critical Decision-Making Characteristics

When faced with a difficult or complicated decision, there are a number of characteristics found in those who approach the process critically.

• Truth seeking. The process of critical decision-making requires a desire for the best possible knowledge or outcome, even if, as a result, personal preconceptions, beliefs or self-interests are undermined.
• Open-minded. Successful critical decision-makers are tolerant to divergent views, and are aware of possible bias in their thought process.
• Analytical. The decision-making process is necessarily analytical. The application of reason and evidence, remaining alert to problematic situations and being able to anticipate potential consequences are all important.
• Systematic. Organization, focus and diligence when approaching decisions of all levels of complexity are beneficial to the critical decision-maker.
• Self-Confidence. When using critical thinking as a decision-making tool, the user must have a high level of trust in their personal reasoning.
• Inquisitive. A natural curiosity and eagerness to acquire knowledge and seek explanations will help to ensure the decision is made using as much relevant information as can be found.

In addition to these characteristics, critical decision-making requires a certain level of cognitive maturity. The user will be aware of the importance of prudence in making, suspending, or revising their original judgment, and will have an awareness that multiple solutions can be acceptable.

As well as developing the characteristics above, there are a number of techniques which will aid in critical decision-making.

Argument Mapping

Argument mapping is, roughly, making a picture of reasoning. Typically, argument maps are box and arrow diagrams, a bit like flowcharts. Belonging to the same family as mind mapping, argument mapping focuses specifically on the structure of a reason or argument, Argument mapping helps the user to come to a decision by weighing up the evidence for and against specifics, as well as providing a visual picture of where an argument or decision may fail due to an assumption being made.

Positive and negative arguments for potential alternative decisions can then be identified.

A simple decision-making example might look like this.

Should we build more roads in order to reduce traffic congestion in the city?

More information on the uses of argument maps and how to create them can be found using these links.

http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/arg/complex.php https://www.rationaleonline.com/docs/en/tutorials#tvy5fw

Critical Decision-Making Model

The critical decision-making model is a quick and easy tool that can be used by anyone who needs to make a decision. First briefly state the problem or decision to be made. Then identify at least three possible options or courses of action. As a simple example: Decision to be made: Should we employ more staff to answer the phones? Possible courses of action/options:

• Employ more staff.
• Install an automated system.
• Accept that some people may have to be kept on hold until the existing staff can answer the phone.
• Add a frequently asked questions section to the website to reduce the volume of similar calls.

Each course or action/option can then be evaluated to determine the best possible outcome. An argument map or a simple pros and cons list will help here.

Fact or Fiction

Simply write down a list of reasons supporting each possible option for the decision that needs to be made. Then write beside each one whether it is fact or fiction. Only determine something to be fact if the information can be backed up by accepted evidence such as statistics or case studies. For example:

The available options and the accompanying reasons might include:

Build more roads

• more roads will reduce the amount of congestions
• more roads will keep traffic moving faster
• road users are less stressed when more roads are built

Develop public transport instead

• improved public transport will reduce congestion
• improved public transport is better for the environment
• more people will use public transport if the service is more frequent

Some or all of these options may well be fact, however it should be checked that there is available evidence before stating this categorically. The purpose of this exercise is to show where assumptions have been made which may result in making the wrong decision.

Join Mind Tools and get access to exclusive content.

This resource is only available to Mind Tools members.

Already a member? Please Login here

Introducing Mind Tools for Business

Mind Tools for Business is a comprehensive library of award-winning performance and management support resources.

Whether you want to increase engagement, upskill teams, or complement your existing workplace programs – this is content designed to achieve impactful results.

Sign-up to our newsletter

Subscribing to the Mind Tools newsletter will keep you up-to-date with our latest updates and newest resources.

Subscribe now

Business Skills

Personal Development

Leadership and Management

Most Popular

Newest Releases

How to Negotiate a Job Offer

Overwhelmed at Work

Mind Tools Store

About Mind Tools Content

Discover something new today

Inclusive leadership.

Embracing diversity for organizational success

Cross-Team Collaboration in the Hybrid Workplace

Making hybrid teams inclusive, cohesive and productive

How Emotionally Intelligent Are You?

Boosting Your People Skills

Self-Assessment

What's Your Leadership Style?

Learn About the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Way You Like to Lead

Recommended for you

Dealing with high team turnover.

Managing in Turbulent Times

Business Operations and Process Management

Strategy Tools

Customer Service

Business Ethics and Values

Handling Information and Data

• Project Management

Knowledge Management

Self-Development and Goal Setting

Time Management

Presentation Skills

Career Skills

Communication Skills

Negotiation, Persuasion and Influence

Working With Others

Difficult Conversations

Creativity Tools

Self-Management

Work-Life Balance

Stress Management and Wellbeing

Coaching and Mentoring

Change Management

Team Management

Managing Conflict

Delegation and Empowerment

Performance Management

Leadership Skills

Developing Your Team

Talent Management

Problem Solving

• Decision Making

• Get started with computers
• Learn Microsoft Office
• Apply for a job
• Improve my work skills
• Design nice-looking docs
• Getting Started
• Smartphones & Tablets
• Typing Tutorial
• Online Learning
• Basic Internet Skills
• Online Safety
• Social Media
• Zoom Basics
• Google Docs
• Google Sheets
• Career Planning
• Resume Writing
• Cover Letters
• Job Search and Networking
• Business Communication
• Entrepreneurship 101
• Careers without College
• Job Hunt for Today
• 3D Printing
• Freelancing 101
• Personal Finance
• Sharing Economy

Decision-Making

• Graphic Design
• Photography
• Image Editing
• Learning WordPress
• Language Learning
• Critical Thinking
• For Educators
• Translations
• Staff Picks
• English expand_more expand_less

Critical Thinking and Decision-Making  - Decision-Making Strategies

Critical thinking and decision-making  -, decision-making strategies, critical thinking and decision-making decision-making strategies.

Critical Thinking and Decision-Making: Decision-Making Strategies

Lesson 3: decision-making strategies.

/en/problem-solving-and-decision-making/why-is-it-so-hard-to-make-decisions/content/

How do you usually make decisions?

There are lots of ways to make a decision . For example, you could flip a coin. You could trust your gut and do what you think is right. Or you could avoid thinking about it at all, and just make a choice at random—for better or for worse.

That's probably OK for small decisions, but what about more important ones? It's better to think carefully about your options and consider the many paths you could take.

With the right tools, you can learn to do this objectively , so you can make decisions you feel good about. We're going to cover several strategies that can help.

Watch the video below to learn more about decision-making strategies.

Making decisions objectively

The first step to making any decision is simple: Identify the problem . As an example, say you're trying to choose between two apartments. One is cheaper but farther away from work. The other is closer—and nicer!—but much more expensive.

Which one would you choose? Depending on what you value, you probably have some idea. This initial response, the one tied to your instincts and emotions , is perfectly valid; however, you should also try to look at your options rationally .

Comparing your options

Start by comparing them. There are several ways to do this. For example, you could list all the factors that you're considering—things like price, location, and other amenities—then choose the one thing that's most important to you. With that in mind, which option comes out on top?

Creating a points system

You could go one step further and create a points system . Take that same list and turn it into a scorecard for each option.

In this example, it means the first apartment would score high on affordable rent (let's say a 10), but much lower on location . The other apartment would score about the opposite in the same categories.

Keep going down the list until you've scored every item, being as objective as you can. Then add up the totals, and see if you have a winner.

Identifying pros and cons

Looking at it another way, you could evaluate one option at a time using a list of pros and cons. It sounds simple, but sometimes it helps to write these things down.

This time, it's OK to be subjective —certain factors can and should carry more weight than others. It's how you feel about them that counts, so be honest about what these things mean to you.

Thinking about the consequences

Imagining possible outcomes might give you some perspective on the decision. Say you're thinking about adopting a dog. What do you think the consequences might be in a month? In a year? How about several years from now?

Making decisions can be a roller coaster ride, especially when there are long-term consequences to think about. We can't see into the future, but we can try to be prepared.

Other mental tricks

At this point, it's normal to feel overwhelmed, even stuck. With so much to consider, how do you know you're making the right choice? There are a couple more techniques that can help you fire up your brain and trick it into thinking differently . Try these the next time you need a mental reset.

The two-minute diversion

Distract yourself with a two-minute activity that you find moderately difficult . Maybe you like playing mobile games, or solving math problems for fun—whatever works for you (we won't judge).

Believe it or not, you'll continue to process the decision unconsciously , according to brain imaging research by Carnegie Mellon University. This brief window of time helps you internalize important details, so you can make better, more insightful decisions.

Thinking in third person

Sometimes it helps to step outside yourself and pretend you're helping someone else . Studies show we're able to think more objectively in third person —that's why it's easier to give advice than it is to receive it.

If a friend or family member were struggling with the same decision, what questions would you ask them? What compromises would you suggest?

Really think about it. Adopting a different point of view might help you see the situation in an entirely new way.

Making decisions with confidence

Making decisions isn't like taking a test. There are no right or wrong answers, per se—it just depends on the situation.

Focus on taking the time to think about your options and what you hope to achieve so you can feel confident about the choices you make. It's not as easy as flipping a coin, but it's worth the extra effort.

/en/problem-solving-and-decision-making/using-brain-teasers-to-build-critical-thinking-skills/content/

• Collaboration |
• How to build your critical thinking ski ...

How to build your critical thinking skills in 7 steps (with examples)

Critical thinking is, well, critical. By building these skills, you improve your ability to analyze information and come to the best decision possible. In this article, we cover the basics of critical thinking, as well as the seven steps you can use to implement the full critical thinking process. 

Critical thinking comes from asking the right questions to come to the best conclusion possible. Strong critical thinkers analyze information from a variety of viewpoints in order to identify the best course of action.

Don’t worry if you don’t think you have strong critical thinking abilities. In this article, we’ll help you build a foundation for critical thinking so you can absorb, analyze, and make informed decisions. 

What is critical thinking? 

Critical thinking is the ability to collect and analyze information to come to a conclusion. Being able to think critically is important in virtually every industry and applicable across a wide range of positions. That’s because critical thinking isn’t subject-specific—rather, it’s your ability to parse through information, data, statistics, and other details in order to identify a satisfactory solution. 

Decision-making tools for agile businesses

In this ebook, learn how to equip employees to make better decisions—so your business can pivot, adapt, and tackle challenges more effectively than your competition.

Top 8 critical thinking skills

Like most soft skills, critical thinking isn’t something you can take a class to learn. Rather, this skill consists of a variety of interpersonal and analytical skills. Developing critical thinking is more about learning to embrace open-mindedness and bringing analytical thinking to your problem framing process. 

In no particular order, the eight most important critical thinking skills are:

Analytical thinking: Part of critical thinking is evaluating data from multiple sources in order to come to the best conclusions. Analytical thinking allows people to reject bias and strive to gather and consume information to come to the best conclusion. 

Open-mindedness: This critical thinking skill helps you analyze and process information to come to an unbiased conclusion. Part of the critical thinking process is letting your personal biases go and coming to a conclusion based on all of the information. 

Problem solving : Because critical thinking emphasizes coming to the best conclusion based on all of the available information, it’s a key part of problem solving. When used correctly, critical thinking helps you solve any problem—from a workplace challenge to difficulties in everyday life. 

Self-regulation: Self-regulation refers to the ability to regulate your thoughts and set aside any personal biases to come to the best conclusion. In order to be an effective critical thinker, you need to question the information you have and the decisions you favor—only then can you come to the best conclusion. 

Observation: Observation skills help critical thinkers look for things beyond face value. To be a critical thinker you need to embrace multiple points of view, and you can use observation skills to identify potential problems.

Interpretation: Not all data is made equal—and critical thinkers know this. In addition to gathering information, it’s important to evaluate which information is important and relevant to your situation. That way, you can draw the best conclusions from the data you’ve collected. 

Evaluation: When you attempt to answer a hard question, there is rarely an obvious answer. Even though critical thinking emphasizes putting your biases aside, you need to be able to confidently make a decision based on the data you have available. 

Communication: Once a decision has been made, you also need to share this decision with other stakeholders. Effective workplace communication includes presenting evidence and supporting your conclusion—especially if there are a variety of different possible solutions. 

7 steps to critical thinking

Critical thinking is a skill that you can build by following these seven steps. The seven steps to critical thinking help you ensure you’re approaching a problem from the right angle, considering every alternative, and coming to an unbiased conclusion.

 First things first: When to use the 7 step critical thinking process

There’s a lot that goes into the full critical thinking process, and not every decision needs to be this thought out. Sometimes, it’s enough to put aside bias and approach a process logically. In other, more complex cases, the best way to identify the ideal outcome is to go through the entire critical thinking process. 

The seven-step critical thinking process is useful for complex decisions in areas you are less familiar with. Alternatively, the seven critical thinking steps can help you look at a problem you’re familiar with from a different angle, without any bias. 

If you need to make a less complex decision, consider another problem solving strategy instead. Decision matrices are a great way to identify the best option between different choices. Check out our article on 7 steps to creating a decision matrix .

1. Identify the problem

Before you put those critical thinking skills to work, you first need to identify the problem you’re solving. This step includes taking a look at the problem from a few different perspectives and asking questions like: 

What’s happening? 

Why is this happening? 

What assumptions am I making? 

At first glance, how do I think we can solve this problem? 

A big part of developing your critical thinking skills is learning how to come to unbiased conclusions. In order to do that, you first need to acknowledge the biases that you currently have. Does someone on your team think they know the answer? Are you making assumptions that aren’t necessarily true? Identifying these details helps you later on in the process. 

2. Research

At this point, you likely have a general idea of the problem—but in order to come up with the best solution, you need to dig deeper. 

During the research process, collect information relating to the problem, including data, statistics, historical project information, team input, and more. Make sure you gather information from a variety of sources, especially if those sources go against your personal ideas about what the problem is or how to solve it.

Gathering varied information is essential for your ability to apply the critical thinking process. If you don’t get enough information, your ability to make a final decision will be skewed. Remember that critical thinking is about helping you identify the objective best conclusion. You aren’t going with your gut—you’re doing research to find the best option

3. Determine data relevance

Just as it’s important to gather a variety of information, it is also important to determine how relevant the different information sources are. After all, just because there is data doesn’t mean it’s relevant. 

Once you’ve gathered all of the information, sift through the noise and identify what information is relevant and what information isn’t. Synthesizing all of this information and establishing significance helps you weigh different data sources and come to the best conclusion later on in the critical thinking process. 

To determine data relevance, ask yourself:

How reliable is this information? 

How significant is this information? 

Is this information outdated? Is it specialized in a specific field? 

4. Ask questions

One of the most useful parts of the critical thinking process is coming to a decision without bias. In order to do so, you need to take a step back from the process and challenge the assumptions you’re making. 

We all have bias—and that isn’t necessarily a bad thing. Unconscious biases (also known as cognitive biases) often serve as mental shortcuts to simplify problem solving and aid decision making. But even when biases aren’t inherently bad, you must be aware of your biases in order to put them aside when necessary. 

Before coming to a solution, ask yourself:

Am I making any assumptions about this information? 

Are there additional variables I haven’t considered? 

Have I evaluated the information from every perspective? 

Are there any viewpoints I missed? 

5. Identify the best solution

Finally, you’re ready to come to a conclusion. To identify the best solution, draw connections between causes and effects. Use the facts you’ve gathered to evaluate the most objective conclusion. 

Keep in mind that there may be more than one solution. Often, the problems you’re facing are complex and intricate. The critical thinking process doesn’t necessarily lead to a cut-and-dry solution—instead, the process helps you understand the different variables at play so you can make an informed decision. 

6. Present your solution

Communication is a key skill for critical thinkers. It isn’t enough to think for yourself—you also need to share your conclusion with other project stakeholders. If there are multiple solutions, present them all. There may be a case where you implement one solution, then test to see if it works before implementing another solution. 

7. Analyze your decision

The seven-step critical thinking process yields a result—and you then need to put that solution into place. After you’ve implemented your decision, evaluate whether or not it was effective. Did it solve the initial problem? What lessons—whether positive or negative—can you learn from this experience to improve your critical thinking for next time? 

Depending on how your team shares information, consider documenting lessons learned in a central source of truth. That way, team members that are making similar or related decisions in the future can understand why you made the decision you made and what the outcome was. 

Example of critical thinking in the workplace

Imagine you work in user experience design (UX). Your team is focused on pricing and packaging and ensuring customers have a clear understanding of the different services your company offers. Here’s how to apply the critical thinking process in the workplace in seven steps: 

Start by identifying the problem

Your current pricing page isn’t performing as well as you want. You’ve heard from customers that your services aren’t clear, and that the page doesn’t answer the questions they have. This page is really important for your company, since it’s where your customers sign up for your service. You and your team have a few theories about why your current page isn’t performing well, but you decide to apply the critical thinking process to ensure you come to the best decision for the page. 

Gather information about how the problem started

Part of identifying the problem includes understanding how the problem started. The pricing and packaging page is important—so when your team initially designed the page, they certainly put a lot of thought into it. Before you begin researching how to improve the page, ask yourself: 

Why did you design the pricing page the way you did? 

Which stakeholders need to be involved in the decision making process? 

Where are users getting stuck on the page?

Are any features currently working?

Then, you research

In addition to understanding the history of the pricing and packaging page, it’s important to understand what works well. Part of this research means taking a look at what your competitor’s pricing pages look like. 

Ask yourself: 

How have our competitors set up their pricing pages?

Are there any pricing page best practices? 

How does color, positioning, and animation impact navigation? 

Are there any standard page layouts customers expect to see? 

Organize and analyze information

You’ve gathered all of the information you need—now you need to organize and analyze it. What trends, if any, are you noticing? Is there any particularly relevant or important information that you have to consider? 

Ask open-ended questions to reduce bias

In the case of critical thinking, it’s important to address and set bias aside as much as possible. Ask yourself: 

Is there anything I’m missing? 

Have I connected with the right stakeholders? 

Are there any other viewpoints I should consider? 

Determine the best solution for your team

You now have all of the information you need to design the best pricing page. Depending on the complexity of the design, you may want to design a few options to present to a small group of customers or A/B test on the live website.

Present your solution to stakeholders

Critical thinking can help you in every element of your life, but in the workplace, you must also involve key project stakeholders . Stakeholders help you determine next steps, like whether you’ll A/B test the page first. Depending on the complexity of the issue, consider hosting a meeting or sharing a status report to get everyone on the same page. 

Analyze the results

No process is complete without evaluating the results. Once the new page has been live for some time, evaluate whether it did better than the previous page. What worked? What didn’t? This also helps you make better critical decisions later on.

Critically successful 

Critical thinking takes time to build, but with effort and patience you can apply an unbiased, analytical mind to any situation. Critical thinking makes up one of many soft skills that makes you an effective team member, manager, and worker. If you’re looking to hone your skills further, read our article on the 25 project management skills you need to succeed . 

Related resources

Don’t like giving feedback? These 20 tips are for you

Work schedule types: How to find the right approach for your team

When to use collaboration vs. coordination

6 ways to develop adaptability in the workplace and embrace change

• Search Search Search …
• Search Search …

Critical Thinking Models: A Comprehensive Guide for Effective Decision Making

Critical thinking models are valuable frameworks that help individuals develop and enhance their critical thinking skills . These models provide a structured approach to problem-solving and decision-making by encouraging the evaluation of information and arguments in a logical, systematic manner. By understanding and applying these models, one can learn to make well-reasoned judgments and decisions.

Various critical thinking models exist, each catering to different contexts and scenarios. These models offer a step-by-step method to analyze situations, scrutinize assumptions and biases, and consider alternative perspectives. Ultimately, the goal of critical thinking models is to enhance an individual’s ability to think critically, ultimately improving their reasoning and decision-making skills in both personal and professional settings.

Key Takeaways

• Critical thinking models provide structured approaches for enhancing decision-making abilities
• These models help individuals analyze situations, scrutinize assumptions, and consider alternative perspectives
• The application of critical thinking models can significantly improve one’s reasoning and judgment skills.

Fundamentals of Critical Thinking

Definition and Importance

Critical thinking is the intellectual process of logically, objectively, and systematically evaluating information to form reasoned judgments, utilizing reasoning , logic , and evidence . It involves:

• Identifying and questioning assumptions,
• Applying consistent principles and criteria,
• Analyzing and synthesizing information,
• Drawing conclusions based on evidence.

The importance of critical thinking lies in its ability to help individuals make informed decisions, solve complex problems, and differentiate between true and false beliefs .

Core Cognitive Skills

Several core cognitive skills underpin critical thinking:

• Analysis : Breaking down complex information into smaller components to identify patterns or inconsistencies.
• Evaluation : Assessing the credibility and relevance of sources, arguments, and evidence.
• Inference : Drawing conclusions by connecting the dots between analyzed information.
• Synthesis : Incorporating analyzed information into a broader understanding and constructing one’s argument.
• Logic and reasoning : Applying principles of logic to determine the validity of arguments and weigh evidence.

These skills enable individuals to consistently apply intellectual standards in their thought process, which ultimately results in sound judgments and informed decisions.

Influence of Cognitive Biases

A key aspect of critical thinking is recognizing and mitigating the impact of cognitive biases on our thought processes. Cognitive biases are cognitive shortcuts or heuristics that can lead to flawed reasoning and distort our understanding of a situation. Examples of cognitive biases include confirmation bias, anchoring bias, and availability heuristic.

To counter the influence of cognitive biases, critical thinkers must be aware of their own assumptions and strive to apply consistent and objective evaluation criteria in their thinking process. The practice of actively recognizing and addressing cognitive biases promotes an unbiased and rational approach to problem-solving and decision-making.

The Critical Thinking Process

Stages of Critical Thinking

The critical thinking process starts with gathering and evaluating data . This stage involves identifying relevant information and ensuring it is credible and reliable. Next, an individual engages in analysis by examining the data closely to understand its context and interpret its meaning. This step can involve breaking down complex ideas into simpler components for better understanding.

The next stage focuses on determining the quality of the arguments, concepts, and theories present in the analyzed data. Critical thinkers question the credibility and logic behind the information while also considering their own biases and assumptions. They apply consistent standards when evaluating sources, which helps them identify any weaknesses in the arguments.

Values play a significant role in the critical thinking process. Critical thinkers assess the significance of moral, ethical, or cultural values shaping the issue, argument, or decision at hand. They determine whether these values align with the evidence and logic they have analyzed.

After thorough analysis and evaluation, critical thinkers draw conclusions based on the evidence and reasoning gathered. This step includes synthesizing the information and presenting a clear, concise argument or decision. It also involves explaining the reasoning behind the conclusion to ensure it is well-founded.

Application in Decision Making

In decision making, critical thinking is a vital skill that allows individuals to make informed choices. It enables them to:

• Analyze options and their potential consequences
• Evaluate the credibility of sources and the quality of information
• Identify biases, assumptions, and values that may influence the decision
• Construct a reasoned, well-justified conclusion

By using critical thinking in decision making, individuals can make more sound, objective choices. The process helps them to avoid pitfalls like jumping to conclusions, being influenced by biases, or basing decisions on unreliable data. The result is more thoughtful, carefully-considered decisions leading to higher quality outcomes.

Critical Thinking Models

Critical thinking models are frameworks that help individuals develop better problem-solving and decision-making abilities. They provide strategies for analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information to reach well-founded conclusions. This section will discuss four notable models: The RED Model, Bloom’s Taxonomy, Paul-Elder Model, and The Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment.

The RED Model

The RED Model stands for Recognize Assumptions, Evaluate Arguments, and Draw Conclusions. It emphasizes the importance of questioning assumptions, weighing evidence, and reaching logical conclusions.

• Recognize Assumptions: Identify and challenge assumptions that underlie statements, beliefs, or arguments.
• Evaluate Arguments: Assess the validity and reliability of evidence to support or refute claims.
• Draw Conclusions: Make well-reasoned decisions based on available information and sound reasoning.

The RED Model helps individuals become more effective problem solvers and decision-makers by guiding them through the critical thinking process ^(source) .

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchical model that classifies cognitive skills into six levels of complexity. These levels are remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. By progressing through these levels, individuals can develop higher-order thinking skills.

• Remembering: Recall information or facts.
• Understanding: Comprehend the meaning of ideas, facts, or problems.
• Applying: Use knowledge in different situations.
• Analyzing: Break down complex topics or problems into sub-parts.
• Evaluating: Assess the quality, relevance, or credibility of information, ideas, or solutions.
• Creating: Combine elements to form a new whole, generate new ideas, or solve complex issues.

Paul-Elder Model

The Paul-Elder Model introduces the concept of “elements of thought,” focusing on a structured approach to critical thinking. This model promotes intellectual standards, such as clarity, accuracy, and relevance. It consists of three stages:

• Critical Thinking: Employ the intellectual standards to problem-solving and decision-making processes.
• Elements of Thought: Consider purpose, question at issue, information, interpretation and inference, concepts, assumptions, implications, and point of view.
• Intellectual Traits: Develop intellectual traits, such as intellectual humility, intellectual empathy, and intellectual perseverance.

This model fosters a deeper understanding and appreciation of critical thinking ^(source) .

The Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment

The Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment is a standardized test developed by Diane Halpern to assess critical thinking skills. The evaluation uses a variety of tasks to measure abilities in core skill areas, such as verbal reasoning, argument analysis, and decision making. Pearson, a leading publisher of educational assessments, offers this test as a means to assess individuals’ critical thinking skills ^(source) .

These four critical thinking models can be used as frameworks to improve and enhance cognitive abilities. By learning and practicing these models, individuals can become better equipped to analyze complex information, evaluate options, and make well-informed decisions.

Evaluating Information and Arguments

In this section, we will discuss the importance of evaluating information and arguments in the process of critical thinking, focusing on evidence assessment, logic and fallacies, and argument analysis.

Evidence Assessment

Evaluating the relevance, accuracy, and credibility of information is a vital aspect of critical thinking. In the process of evidence assessment, a thinker should consider the following factors:

• Source reliability : Research and understand the expertise and credibility of the source to ensure that biased or inaccurate information is not being considered.
• Currency : Check the date of the information to make sure it is still relevant and accurate in the present context.
• Objectivity : Analyze the information for potential bias and always cross-reference it with other credible sources.

When practicing critical thinking skills, it is essential to be aware of your own biases and make efforts to minimize their influence on your decision-making process.

Logic and Fallacies

Logic is crucial for deconstructing and analyzing complex arguments, while identifying and avoiding logical fallacies helps maintain accurate and valid conclusions. Some common fallacies to watch out for in critical thinking include:

• Ad Hominem : Attacking the person making the argument instead of addressing the argument itself.
• Strawman : Misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to make it easier to refute.
• False Dilemma : Presenting only two options when there may be multiple viable alternatives.
• Appeal to Authority : Assuming a claim is true simply because an authority figure supports it.

Being aware of these fallacies enables a thinker to effectively evaluate the strength of an argument and make sound judgments accordingly.

Argument Analysis

Analyzing an argument is the process of evaluating its structure, premises, and conclusion while determining its validity and soundness. To analyze an argument, follow these steps:

• Identify the premises and conclusion : Determine the main point is being argued, how it is related and substance of the argument.
• Evaluate the validity : Assess whether the conclusion logically follows from the premises and if the argument’s structure is sound.
• Test the soundness : Evaluate the truth and relevance of the premises. This may require verifying the accuracy of facts and evidence, as well as assessing the reliability of sources.
• Consider counter-arguments : Identify opposing viewpoints and counter-arguments, and evaluate their credibility to gauge the overall strength of the original argument.

By effectively evaluating information and arguments, critical thinkers develop a solid foundation for making well-informed decisions and solving problems.

Enhancing Critical Thinking

Strategies for improvement.

To enhance critical thinking, individuals can practice different strategies, including asking thought-provoking questions, analyzing ideas and observations, and being open to different perspectives. One effective technique is the Critical Thinking Roadmap , which breaks critical thinking down into four measurable phases: execute, synthesize, recommend, and communicate. It’s important to use deliberate practice in these areas to develop a strong foundation for problem-solving and decision-making. In addition, cultivating a mindset of courage , fair-mindedness , and empathy will support critical thinking development.

Critical Thinking in Education

In the field of education, critical thinking is an essential component of effective learning and pedagogy. Integrating critical thinking into the curriculum encourages student autonomy, fosters innovation, and improves student outcomes. Teachers can use various approaches to promote critical thinking, such as:

• Employing open-ended questions to stimulate ideas
• Incorporating group discussions or debates to facilitate communication and evaluation of viewpoints
• Assessing and providing feedback on student work to encourage reflection and improvement
• Utilizing real-world scenarios and case studies for practical application of concepts

Developing a Critical Thinking Mindset

To truly enhance critical thinking abilities, it’s important to adopt a mindset that values integrity , autonomy , and empathy . These qualities help to create a learning environment that encourages open-mindedness, which is key to critical thinking development. To foster a critical thinking mindset:

• Be curious : Remain open to new ideas and ask questions to gain a deeper understanding.
• Communicate effectively : Clearly convey thoughts and actively listen to others.
• Reflect and assess : Regularly evaluate personal beliefs and assumptions to promote growth.
• Embrace diversity of thought : Welcome different viewpoints and ideas to foster innovation.

Incorporating these approaches can lead to a more robust critical thinking skillset, allowing individuals to better navigate and solve complex problems.

Critical Thinking in Various Contexts

The workplace and beyond.

Critical thinking is a highly valued skill in the workplace, as it enables employees to analyze situations, make informed decisions, and solve problems effectively. It involves a careful thinking process directed towards a specific goal. Employers often seek individuals who possess strong critical thinking abilities, as they can add significant value to the organization.

In the workplace context, critical thinkers are able to recognize assumptions, evaluate arguments, and draw conclusions, following models such as the RED model . They can also adapt their thinking to suit various scenarios, allowing them to tackle complex and diverse problems.

Moreover, critical thinking transcends the workplace and applies to various aspects of life. It empowers an individual to make better decisions, analyze conflicting information, and engage in constructive debates.

Creative and Lateral Thinking

Critical thinking encompasses both creative and lateral thinking. Creative thinking involves generating novel ideas and solutions to problems, while lateral thinking entails looking at problems from different angles to find unique and innovative solutions.

Creative thinking allows thinkers to:

• Devise new concepts and ideas
• Challenge conventional wisdom
• Build on existing knowledge to generate innovative solutions

Lateral thinking, on the other hand, encourages thinkers to:

• Break free from traditional thought patterns
• Combine seemingly unrelated ideas to create unique solutions
• Utilize intuition and intelligence to approach problems from a different perspective

Both creative and lateral thinking are essential components of critical thinking, allowing individuals to view problems in a holistic manner and generate well-rounded solutions. These skills are highly valued by employers and can lead to significant personal and professional growth.

In conclusion, critical thinking is a multifaceted skill that comprises various thought processes, including creative and lateral thinking. By embracing these skills, individuals can excel in the workplace and in their personal lives, making better decisions and solving problems effectively.

Overcoming Challenges

Recognizing and addressing bias.

Cognitive biases and thinking biases can significantly affect the process of critical thinking . One of the key components of overcoming these challenges is to recognize and address them. It is essential to be aware of one’s own beliefs, as well as the beliefs of others, to ensure fairness and clarity throughout the decision-making process. To identify and tackle biases, one can follow these steps:

• Be self-aware : Understand personal beliefs and biases, acknowledging that they may influence the interpretation of information.
• Embrace diverse perspectives : Encourage open discussions and invite different viewpoints to challenge assumptions and foster cognitive diversity.
• Reevaluate evidence : Continuously reassess the relevance and validity of the information being considered.

By adopting these practices, individuals can minimize the impact of biases and enhance the overall quality of their critical thinking skills.

Dealing with Information Overload

In today’s world, information is abundant, and it can become increasingly difficult to demystify and make sense of the available data. Dealing with information overload is a crucial aspect of critical thinking. Here are some strategies to address this challenge:

• Prioritize information : Focus on the most relevant and reliable data, filtering out unnecessary details.
• Organize data : Use tables, charts, and lists to categorize information and identify patterns more efficiently.
• Break down complex information : Divide complex data into smaller, manageable segments to simplify interpretation and inferences.

By implementing these techniques, individuals can effectively manage information overload, enabling them to process and analyze data more effectively, leading to better decision-making.

In conclusion, overcoming challenges such as biases and information overload is essential in the pursuit of effective critical thinking. By recognizing and addressing these obstacles, individuals can develop clarity and fairness in their thought processes, leading to well-informed decisions and improved problem-solving capabilities.

Measuring Critical Thinking

Assessment tools and criteria.

There are several assessment tools designed to measure critical thinking, each focusing on different aspects such as quality, depth, breadth, and significance of thinking. One example of a widely used standardized test is the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal , which evaluates an individual’s ability to interpret information, draw conclusions, and make assumptions. Another test is the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests Level X and Level Z , which assess an individual’s critical thinking skills through multiple-choice questions.

Furthermore, criteria for assessing critical thinking often include precision, relevance, and the ability to gather and analyze relevant information. Some assessors utilize the Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment , which measures the application of cognitive skills such as deduction, observation, and induction in real-world scenarios.

The Role of IQ and Tests

It’s important to note that intelligence quotient (IQ) tests and critical thinking assessments are not the same. While IQ tests aim to measure an individual’s cognitive abilities and general intelligence, critical thinking tests focus specifically on one’s ability to analyze, evaluate, and form well-founded opinions. Therefore, having a high IQ does not necessarily guarantee strong critical thinking skills, as critical thinking requires additional mental processes beyond basic logical reasoning.

To build and enhance critical thinking skills, individuals should practice and develop higher-order thinking, such as critical alertness, critical reflection, and critical analysis. Using a Critical Thinking Roadmap , such as the four-phase framework that includes execution, synthesis, recommendation, and the ability to apply, individuals can continuously work to improve their critical thinking abilities.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the main steps involved in the paul-elder critical thinking model.

The Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Model is a comprehensive framework for developing critical thinking skills. The main steps include: identifying the purpose, formulating questions, gathering information, identifying assumptions, interpreting information, and evaluating arguments. The model emphasizes clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness throughout the critical thinking process. By following these steps, individuals can efficiently analyze and evaluate complex ideas and issues.

Can you list five techniques to enhance critical thinking skills?

Here are five techniques to help enhance critical thinking skills:

• Ask open-ended questions : Encourages exploration and challenges assumptions.
• Engage in active listening: Focus on understanding others’ viewpoints before responding.
• Reflect on personal biases: Identify and question any preconceived notions or judgments.
• Practice mindfulness: Develop self-awareness and stay present in the moment.
• Collaborate with others: Exchange ideas and learn from diverse perspectives.

What is the RED Model of critical thinking and how is it applied?

The RED Model of critical thinking consists of three key components: Recognize Assumptions, Evaluate Arguments, and Draw Conclusions. To apply the RED Model, begin by recognizing and questioning underlying assumptions, being aware of personal biases and stereotypes. Next, evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of different arguments, considering evidence, logical consistency, and alternative explanations. Lastly, draw well-reasoned conclusions that are based on the analysis and evaluation of the information gathered.

How do the ‘3 C’s’ of critical thinking contribute to effective problem-solving?

The ‘3 C’s’ of critical thinking – Curiosity, Creativity, and Criticism – collectively contribute to effective problem-solving. Curiosity allows individuals to explore various perspectives and ask thought-provoking questions, while Creativity helps develop innovative solutions and unique approaches to challenges. Criticism, or the ability to evaluate and analyze ideas objectively, ensures that the problem-solving process remains grounded in logic and relevance.

What characteristics distinguish critical thinking from creative thinking?

Critical thinking and creative thinking are two complementary cognitive skills. Critical thinking primarily focuses on analyzing, evaluating, and reasoning, using objectivity and logical thinking. It involves identifying problems, assessing evidence, and drawing sound conclusions. Creative thinking, on the other hand, is characterized by the generation of new ideas, concepts, and approaches to solve problems, often involving imagination, originality, and out-of-the-box thinking.

What are some recommended books to help improve problem-solving and critical thinking skills?

There are several books that can help enhance problem-solving and critical thinking skills, including:

• “Thinking, Fast and Slow” by Daniel Kahneman: This book explores the dual process theory of decision-making and reasoning.
• “The 5 Elements of Effective Thinking” by Edward B. Burger and Michael Starbird: Offers practical tips and strategies for improving critical thinking skills.
• “Critique of Pure Reason” by Immanuel Kant: A classic philosophical work that delves into the principles of reason and cognition.
• “Mindware: Tools for Smart Thinking” by Richard E. Nisbett: Presents a range of cognitive tools to enhance critical thinking and decision-making abilities.
• “The Art of Thinking Clearly” by Rolf Dobelli: Explores common cognitive biases and errors in judgment that can affect critical thinking.

You may also like

Clinical Reasoning and Critical Thinking

There are a number of ways to evaluate problems we face on a daily basis, but in the medical field no two […]

The Psychology Behind Critical Thinking: Understanding the Mental Processes Involved

Critical thinking is an essential skill that enables individuals to analyze, evaluate, and interpret information effectively. It is a cognitive process that […]

Difference between intelligence and critical thinking

Some scientists have concluded that traditional intelligence tests don’t accurately test the critical thinking required in making real-life decisions. Hence, many people […]

Solving Life’s Different Challenges with the 9 Mental Models

Life, as they say, is unpredictable. It is filled with variables, alternatives, and branching paths that require a person to respond in […]

Critical Thinking Definition, Skills, and Examples

• Homework Help
• Private School
• College Admissions
• College Life
• Graduate School
• Business School
• Distance Learning

• Indiana University, Bloomington
• State University of New York at Oneonta

Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable phenomena, and research findings.

Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between useful and less useful details to solve problems or make decisions. Employers prioritize the ability to think critically—find out why, plus see how you can demonstrate that you have this ability throughout the job application process. 

Why Do Employers Value Critical Thinking Skills?

Employers want job candidates who can evaluate a situation using logical thought and offer the best solution.

 Someone with critical thinking skills can be trusted to make decisions independently, and will not need constant handholding.

Hiring a critical thinker means that micromanaging won't be required. Critical thinking abilities are among the most sought-after skills in almost every industry and workplace. You can demonstrate critical thinking by using related keywords in your resume and cover letter, and during your interview.

Examples of Critical Thinking

The circumstances that demand critical thinking vary from industry to industry. Some examples include:

• A triage nurse analyzes the cases at hand and decides the order by which the patients should be treated.
• A plumber evaluates the materials that would best suit a particular job.
• An attorney reviews evidence and devises a strategy to win a case or to decide whether to settle out of court.
• A manager analyzes customer feedback forms and uses this information to develop a customer service training session for employees.

Promote Your Skills in Your Job Search

If critical thinking is a key phrase in the job listings you are applying for, be sure to emphasize your critical thinking skills throughout your job search.

Add Keywords to Your Resume

You can use critical thinking keywords (analytical, problem solving, creativity, etc.) in your resume. When describing your  work history , include top critical thinking skills that accurately describe you. You can also include them in your  resume summary , if you have one.

For example, your summary might read, “Marketing Associate with five years of experience in project management. Skilled in conducting thorough market research and competitor analysis to assess market trends and client needs, and to develop appropriate acquisition tactics.”

Mention Skills in Your Cover Letter

Include these critical thinking skills in your cover letter. In the body of your letter, mention one or two of these skills, and give specific examples of times when you have demonstrated them at work. Think about times when you had to analyze or evaluate materials to solve a problem.

Show the Interviewer Your Skills

You can use these skill words in an interview. Discuss a time when you were faced with a particular problem or challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking to solve it.

Some interviewers will give you a hypothetical scenario or problem, and ask you to use critical thinking skills to solve it. In this case, explain your thought process thoroughly to the interviewer. He or she is typically more focused on how you arrive at your solution rather than the solution itself. The interviewer wants to see you analyze and evaluate (key parts of critical thinking) the given scenario or problem.

Of course, each job will require different skills and experiences, so make sure you read the job description carefully and focus on the skills listed by the employer.

Top Critical Thinking Skills

Keep these in-demand critical thinking skills in mind as you update your resume and write your cover letter. As you've seen, you can also emphasize them at other points throughout the application process, such as your interview. 

Part of critical thinking is the ability to carefully examine something, whether it is a problem, a set of data, or a text. People with  analytical skills  can examine information, understand what it means, and properly explain to others the implications of that information.

• Asking Thoughtful Questions
• Data Analysis
• Interpretation
• Questioning Evidence
• Recognizing Patterns

Communication

Often, you will need to share your conclusions with your employers or with a group of colleagues. You need to be able to  communicate with others  to share your ideas effectively. You might also need to engage in critical thinking in a group. In this case, you will need to work with others and communicate effectively to figure out solutions to complex problems.

• Active Listening
• Collaboration
• Explanation
• Interpersonal
• Presentation
• Verbal Communication
• Written Communication

Critical thinking often involves creativity and innovation. You might need to spot patterns in the information you are looking at or come up with a solution that no one else has thought of before. All of this involves a creative eye that can take a different approach from all other approaches.

• Flexibility
• Conceptualization
• Imagination
• Drawing Connections
• Synthesizing

Open-Mindedness

To think critically, you need to be able to put aside any assumptions or judgments and merely analyze the information you receive. You need to be objective, evaluating ideas without bias.

• Objectivity
• Observation

Problem-solving is another critical thinking skill that involves analyzing a problem, generating and implementing a solution, and assessing the success of the plan. Employers don’t simply want employees who can think about information critically. They also need to be able to come up with practical solutions.

• Attention to Detail
• Clarification
• Groundedness
• Identifying Patterns

More Critical Thinking Skills

• Inductive Reasoning
• Deductive Reasoning
• Noticing Outliers
• Adaptability
• Emotional Intelligence
• Brainstorming
• Optimization
• Restructuring
• Integration
• Strategic Planning
• Ongoing Improvement
• Causal Relationships
• Case Analysis
• Diagnostics
• SWOT Analysis
• Business Intelligence
• Quantitative Data Management
• Qualitative Data Management
• Risk Management
• Scientific Method
• Consumer Behavior
• Demonstrate that you have critical thinking skills by adding relevant keywords to your resume.
• Mention pertinent critical thinking skills in your cover letter, too, and include an example of a time when you demonstrated them at work.
• Finally, highlight critical thinking skills during your interview. For instance, you might discuss a time when you were faced with a challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking skills to solve it.

University of Louisville. " What is Critical Thinking ."

American Management Association. " AMA Critical Skills Survey: Workers Need Higher Level Skills to Succeed in the 21st Century ."

• How To Become an Effective Problem Solver
• 2020-21 Common Application Essay Option 4—Solving a Problem
• College Interview Tips: "Tell Me About a Challenge You Overcame"
• The Horse Problem: A Math Challenge
• Types of Medical School Interviews and What to Expect
• What to Do When the Technology Fails in Class
• A Guide to Business Letters Types
• Landing Your First Teaching Job
• How to Facilitate Learning and Critical Thinking
• Problem Solving in Mathematics
• Best Majors for Pre-med Students
• Discover Ideas Through Brainstorming
• What You Need to Know About the Executive Assessment
• Finding a Job for ESL Learners
• Finding a Job for ESL Learners: Interview Basics
• Job Interview Questions and Answers

Planning And Decision Making: Characteristics, Importance, Elements, Limitations

In everyday life, all of us make and execute certain plans to achieve our goals. For example, before going on a trip, we make a plan i.e. where and when to go, how to reach the destination, the duration of the trip, where to stay and luggage to carry, etc. All these tasks require creating an effective plan which consists of certain activities for the successful execution of a trip. Process of making such plans to achieve some goal or objective is called “Planning . “ In other terms, in order to execute activities in future, prior forethought is necessary and this forethought comes under the concept of “planning.”

From an organizational point of view, planning is defined as “process by which an organization identifies its short-term and long-term goals, design, and implement strategies to achieve them.” One of the important aspects of planning is to allocate resources and manpower in an organization.

The planning function was put forth by Henri Fayol, known for his Management Theories i.e. 14 principles of management and 5 basic functions of management.

Planning is one of the six management functions/processes of Henri and the management process starts with planning function in any organization.

For example, manpower planning or human resource planning is a crucial planning process which ensures the right kind of people at the right place, and at the right time to fulfil the right type of jobs in the organizations. This process includes different activities in the planning process to meet organizational goals.

The Purpose Of Planning

1. achievement of goals, 2. cost-effective decision-making, 3. forecasting, 4. productive utilisation of available resources, 5. facilitate other management functions, 6. risk-management, characteristics/nature of planning, 1. basic and important management function.

Planning is not only the base for the rest of the management functions i.e. staffing, directing, organizing, and controlling, but it is also one of the most crucial processes for any organization to meet goals. All the above management functions involve effective planning as without proper planning no function can be performed well. Therefore, the results might be ambiguous.

2. Goal-Oriented

Planning is focused on defining organizational goals or objectives, identifying different action plans, deciding and implementing the best action plan to achieve goals.

3. Omnipresent

Planning is involved at all the levels i.e. top, middle, and bottom. The effective functioning of different departments of organizations like sales, purchase, IT, HR, finance among others depends on planning their systems, optimum use of resources, etc. The scope may vary in different functions.

4. Continuous Process

Planning is a continuous process in an organization which involves making plans for a particular time period i.e. monthly or quarterly, half-yearly, yearly, etc. New plans are initiated after the previous plans lapse to fulfil organizational goals.

5. Demands Strong Analytical Skills

Planning requires robust analytical abilities i.e. analyzing information, problem-solving, decision-making, critical thinking, etc. at each level and function.

6. Forecast

Planning process demands forecasting future needs, i.e. analyzing and detecting future requirements, challenges in accomplishing organizational goals, etc.

Importance Of Planning

1. increase in efficiency.

Planning helps in increasing efficiency by aiming at cost-reduction and generating maximum output. It controls the wastage of available resources and their duplicity.

2. Minimize Risks

Risk-management is an important aspect of any organization, especially in forecasting. Planning predicts various risks related to business and further helps in generating action plans to control and reduce these risks. So, with effective planning, organizations prepare themselves for any future uncertainty.

3. Smooth Coordination

Planning ensures effective coordination at different levels, between various departments or functions. Plans are formulated at each level i.e. top, middle, and bottom as well as in different departments. Effective execution of these plans requires proper coordination which is possible through effective planning. Similarly, different plans like short-, mid-, and long-term plans require coordination to achieve organizational goals where planning plays an important role.

4. Optimum Utilization Of Available Resources

An organization needs different resources like funds, manpower, physical assets to disburse activities of different departments. These resources are limited. So, it’s necessary to utilize and organize them efficiently to produce maximum output. Planning helps in organizing these resources carefully.

5. Smooth Supervision And Direction

Planning paves a path for supervising subordinates, providing right instructions, and rendering top-notch guidance. It aims to provide help, direction for performing various tasks, and methods for carrying out different activities.

6. Facilitates Control

Performance of staff can be controlled or improved by devising plans for improvement in performance according to the variance in performance plans and actual performance at work. Without planning, this process of control could not be smooth.

7. Staff Motivation

Attractive monetary and non-monetary benefits can be designed through proper planning which is helpful in boosting the morale of the staff. This leads to high motivation among staff and reduces turnovers of quality staff.

8. Trouble-Free Decision-Making

Making effective and right decisions in an organization is essential to achieve goals. A supervisor has to make different plans and strategies for the smooth functioning of the department and to decide the most appropriate plan. So, planning helps in smooth decision-making in an organization.

9. Goal-Oriented

Proper planning ensures that the best strategies and decisions are made to fulfil organizational goals. Different plans made at different levels are aimed at achieving individual, departmental, and organizational goals.

10. Encouraging Creativity And Innovative Ideas

Planning demands thinking and implementing the best ideas or strategies for organizational success. Both supervisors and subordinates are encouraged to exploit their creative skills and present their innovative plans.

Elements/Components Of Planning

The planning process revolves around different aspects as shown in the diagram below:

Mission or purpose is the base of planning in any organization. The mission of an organization specifies its reason for existence, customers, products or services, service locations, etc. and mostly in written form. It acts as a direction towards achieving organizational goals. Mission also includes an organization’s values and belief system. It also clears the organization’s viewpoint on staff. Organizational goals are defined based on the mission statement of an organization.

The ultimate aim of the functioning of each department in an organization is to achieve organizational goals and objectives. Planning also requires setting of goals to make a plan further. Goals can be individual or team based. For example:

• Individual goal of Hiring Manager in the HR department: To recruit top talent in the organization in given time-frame.
• Team goal of Human Resource Department: To ensure the development of employees by fulfilling an individual’s personal, professional needs and by meeting organizational goals.

Goals are specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound. Short-term goals can be for less than a year and long-term goals are defined for a time-period of more than a year.

3. Policies

Planning is also based on defined policies of an organization. Policies are a set of guidelines to accomplish any task effectively and also includes procedure and actions. These are defined as a set of plans to handle different situations. Different policies like an insurance policy, travel policy, HR policies are designed to facilitate smooth functioning in any organization. Similarly, if an organization policy says that the minimum annual salary increment of staff will be 10% of the salary then increment can’t be less than 10%. So, policies act as a decision-making element as well.

Planning is connected to a process, and it is an important element of planning. A process defines guidelines to execute different activities, i.e. action plan. In any planning activity, the process is practical. A process like planning is aimed at achieving something. These are step-by-step inter-related activities to be performed and require different resources like money, manpower, machinery, etc. to produce the desired output. For example, in a manufacturing company, different processes are present like production process, quality control and quality assurance process, maintenance process etc.

Plans that are made for estimating income and expenses for a specific period are defined as “budget.” Budget is a set of financial plans which are made for a specific period and reviewed at regular intervals. Whether it is an organization or a family or an individual; all make budget plans to utilize their financial resources efficiently. For example, in an organization business budget is present that includes fixed and variable costs, expected sales, profits, etc.

A well-designed budget also helps in planning during a financial crisis.

6. Projects

Project in an organization refers to the set of inter-related activities which are planned to fulfil certain goals in a specific time period at a given cost using limited resources. Project planning includes defining goals, project schedule, resources, budget, project quality, manpower, and risk management. So, this element of planning consists of other planning elements as well. For example, software companies work on different projects for their clients.

7. Strategies

Strategies are a set of plans and actions that are defined to meet certain results. Proper planning and implementation of strategies are essential for organizational success and to meet certain goals.

Types Of Planning

Planning is mainly of four types i.e. Operational, Strategic, Tactical, and Contingency.

a) Operational Planning

Operational plan or work plan refers to the planning process aimed at achieving departmental and organizational goals. It is related to the day-to-day functioning of organizations. These plans clear planned activities of departments for the near future in detail. The operational plan provides answers of: -What goals have to be achieved and what strategies to use?

-Who will be responsible for different activities?

-What is the time limit to complete activities?-

-How much budget in terms of financial resources is required and available to complete activities?

For example, the goal of the marketing team of an engineering college is to increase the number of students by increasing marketing promotional activities. Marketing operational plan is explained in the diagram below:

Operational planning is of two types i.e. single use plans or ongoing plans. Single-use plans are developed for one-time activities or tasks like sales or marketing event or seminar. Ongoing plans have a defined set of policies, rules, and procedures to achieve goals and are continued for the future as well, like a performance management system for employees.

b) Strategic Planning

Strategic planning is defined as the strategies made by management to achieve its objectives. It also includes defining directions and allocating resources for execution. Strategic planning is meant for long-term business decisions. A strategic plan starts with the vision and the mission statement of an organization.

The process of strategic planning includes vision clarity, collecting and analyzing information, strategy formulation, and implementation of strategy, evaluating, and controlling. For example, the strategic plan of an organization which aims to reduce the current turnover rate is explained in the below diagram:

Models of Strategic Planning

There are five models of strategic planning which represents its designs or blueprints. Selection of the right model depends on an organization’s goals, mission, and vision. These models are:

1. The basic model of strategic planning

These are used by new organizations having less experience in using strategic business planning. It is mainly useful for small-scale organizations and business. This planning includes defining mission, goals, identifying strategies, creating action plans, evaluation etc.

2. Goal-oriented model

This one is an extended version of the basic strategic planning model and is used by established organizations which aim at introducing an improved strategic process. The process of this model includes a SWOT analysis (strength, weakness, opportunity and threat), identifying goals and mission, making strategies, action plans, operational plans, budget allocation, and evaluation on yearly basis.

3. Scenario-based model

This model is more of a technical model. It is used by organizations to face different challenges or scenarios which arise due to external factors or environmental change. Change can be demographic or in the form of rules and regulations. The process includes identifying problem areas in business and different scenarios- both best and worst, designing suggestions for an action plan of business in different scenarios, selecting common strategies to handle changes, and identifying common issues through which business is being affected or will be affected in the near future.

4. Alignment model

This model is useful in making a balance between an organization’s mission and available resources as well as aligning resources to the mission. It helps in identifying any gaps in planning i.e. gap between actual results and expected results. Organizations facing huge efficiencies prefer this strategic planning model to rectify issues.

The process includes identifying an organization’s mission, resources, process, etc, inspecting which areas are working in the right direction and which areas need improvement. It also requires finding ways of improvement and incorporating these improvements in the form of strategies in the plan.

5. Organic model

This strategic model is the self-organizing model which is based more on the value system and less on the process. The process includes clearing values and vision to stakeholders in a meeting; an action plan is established by each person as per values and vision, everyone clears results of actions and update values, vision accordingly.

c) Tactical Planning

This type of planning is for short duration i.e. plans and actions by functions for short-term and aims at contributing to the strategic plan of an organization. Tactical planning is based on today’s need and is a bit more detailed. This planning needs to be flexible to meet unexpected issues which are not predefined. It answers what to do to achieve the strategic objective rather than how-to-do as in case of operational plans. Below is an example of tactic planning by HR Hiring Manager to achieve the goal of hiring twenty sales representatives in the first quarter:

d) Contingency Planning

These type of plans are need-based and are formulated when the need for change arises or during the occurrence of any unexpected circumstance. It is also called alternate plans as it comes under picture once other plans fail to produce desired results. The process includes formulating policy, identifying critical factors of a business, risk analysis, preventive control measures, developing recovery strategies, and testing, training, monitoring plan.

An example of contingency planning can be seen in the diagram below which is a crisis situation of organization i.e. what-if HR Head, who is taking care of all HR gamut of organization, left suddenly. To handle such unexpected situations, contingency plans are made. Like in the below diagram, an organization has formulated a plan i.e. performance development program to train the rest of the HR staff to work at the capacity of HR Head in such crisis situations.

Planning Process

The planning process is defined as the steps to define goals and making the best action plans to achieve it.

Steps In Planning Process

1. Defining goal or objective

Goal setting is the first and important step in the planning process. Goals are defined at the organizational, department, and individual level and are meant to be achieved in future in a specific time period. A goal can be short-term, mid-term or long-term. Plans are devised which are aimed at achieving these predefined goals. Goals specify what to achieve by defined rules, policies, process, resources, strategies, etc.

2. Collecting information

Gathering information like facts and figures required to achieve goals is a necessary part of planning. Target audience, circumstances, market information, competitor’s strategy, etc. are required to make a right and effective plan.

3. Analyzing information

The next step in the planning process is interpreting information as per goals. Analyzing information includes organizing collected information as per importance, identifying accuracy and relevancy of information from different sources, its unique features, sources and reliability for the organization.

4. Making a plan

Once relevant information is collected and analyzed, the next step is to formulate a plan to achieve defined goals; the plan includes identifying different activities, required resources, timelines, etc. to implement a plan.

5. Implement the plan

Implementing a plan refers to allocate defined activities, resources, time guidelines to individuals. In this step, strategies and plans are converted into actions to achieve goals. Implementation of plans also requires allocation of responsibility in the team which is responsible for accomplishing the plan.

6. Monitor the plan

Once a plan is implemented, it’s necessary to evaluate and monitor its effectiveness and impact according to desired goals.

The planning process can be understood further in below example of an organization plan to formulate competitive compensation and benefits structure or plan for employees.

Planning Limitations

Although planning has lots of advantages for any organization aiming to achieve its goals; it also has certain constraints or limitations. Few of them are:

1. Costly process

Planning requires much investment as lots of aspects, i.e. funds, resources, manpower etc, are included in the process of planning. Due to limited capital or funds in small and medium organizations, it is quite challenging to have comprehensive plans. It is hard to allocate funds for information gathering, predicting future needs, developing strategies, and hiring specialists. If a plan is more detailed, then the cost is high too.

2. Time-consuming task

The planning process is a bit time-consuming and, sometimes, there is a delay in decision-making especially in immediate decisions. Due to this, the planning process can’t be detailed in some organizations.

3. Fewer employee initiatives

Planning demands work under predefined policies and rigid processes. This, in turn, marks an impact on initiatives and innovative ideas from the employees. Complexity arises in managerial work as well.

4. Change resistance

The planning process is backed by a change in methods, policies, rules, etc. Employees resist this change due to insecurity, the uncertainty of new plans’ success, and getting used to the current plan. This fails the new plan.

5. Budget constraints

The planning process requires an appropriate or fixed financial budget for future actions. An investment in purchasing fixed assets by organizations puts a constraint on the budget required for implementing the planning process.

6. Scope of inaccuracy

Planning cannot be 100% accurate and reliable as it is based on forecasting and the future is uncertain, data and information used in making plans may not be accurate, vague decisions made by incompetent planner etc. There is no surety of risks in future.

Apart from these, there are few other external factors like change in government policies i.e. tax policy, import-export policy etc. The trade-unions may also hinder a smooth planning process.

Decision-making is defined as the process by which different possible solutions or alternatives are identified and the most feasible solution or course of action is finalized. It is an integral part of planning. Decision-making results in selecting the right action among different available options.

It is also one of the important management functions and effective decision-making leads to fulfilling expected goals by sorting out different problems related to such decisions. Decision-making is also a time-bound process and eliminates confusions to reach a conclusion. It has a minimum of two or more alternatives or solutions to a problem so that the best can be decided. If only one alternative is available, then there is no requirement of decision-making.

Relation Between Planning And Decision-Making

Both planning and decision-making are connected to each other. These are the most important aspects of management functions. Planning requires a series of decisions to be incorporated in advance. The foundation of planning is decision-making. The role of a planner demands good decision-making abilities also as the planner has to take a lot of decisions simultaneously. So, decision-making is an important task in planning. Simultaneous and a number of decisions make a plan. In the absence of decision-making, it’s not possible to answer what, how, when, and who is planning. To execute planned activities, decision-making is compulsory.

So, planning has an important role to play in decision-making.

Characteristics of Decision-Making

Different characteristics of decision-making are mentioned below:

1. Process-oriented

Decision-making consists of a process to choose the best solution to a problem among available alternatives. The process includes identifying and analyzing problems, collecting different facts and figures, finding different solutions, and, finally, narrowing down and implementing the best one to meet organizational goals.

2. Demands creativity and Intellectual mind

Decision-making process requires creativity and logical thinking. It demands a lot of mental exercise and other components, i.e. education, experience level, intelligence, etc.

3. Demonstrates commitment

Decision-making process ensures better results based on the decisions made. So, it indicates the commitment of desired results. It requires joint efforts of the team.

4. Ensures the best solution

Decision-making also provides the best solution to any problem as the best solution is decided after evaluating different available alternatives.

5. Impacts of decision-making

Decision-making can be either positive or negative. A positive or right decision can bring positive results and negative or wrong decisions can bring negative results.

6. Decision-making is a final process

After disbursing different activities and tasks, decision-making takes place to get the results of the work done. It is the end result of discussions, comparisons, etc.

7. An ongoing and changing process

Organizations take decisions on a regular basis; so, decision-making is a continuous process. Every decision consists of separate situations that make decision-making a changing process.

Decision-Making Process

There are different steps in effective decision-making process;

a. Situation analysis and information gathering

The first step of the decision-making process is analyzing any situation, defining a problem, collecting relevant information, and identifying goals. This step includes collecting data and information to identify a real issue or problem. Problem identification is necessary for furthering the decision-making process. Once the problem is identified, an effective solution is determined. Problems are solved as per priority. After the solution is improvised, an action plan is designed to achieve the solution.

b. Plan and make alternatives

After collecting information, the next step is to develop different action plans or an alternative course of action. It requires imagination skills of a decision maker. Sometimes, additional information is also required to define better alternatives.

c. Evaluating and selecting the best alternative

This step in the decision-making process not only includes the analysis of different alternatives available or solutions but also an examination of each one of them based on results they are going to produce. The actual results of these solutions are not known as it’s based on performance in the future. So, it comes with uncertainty. It also includes choosing the best solution to achieve objectives. Different alternatives or solutions are judged based on different criteria, i.e. risk involvement, the least effort, the least timing based on the urgency of the situation, limited resources etc.

d. Implementing and evaluating decisions

After deciding the best solution to address a problem, the next step is to make and implement plans. This requires getting and allocating resources, budgets, time frame, etc. Once made, decisions are evaluated to know the progress by preparing progress reports.

Evaluating and monitoring decisions will clear different aspects, i.e. if everything is going as per the plan, different internal and external factors influencing decisions, the performance of subordinates as expected etc.

Example of the decision-making process is shown in the below visual presentation to solve the problem of high employee turnover in an organization;

Factors Affecting Decision-Making

1. timelines.

The quality of decisions depends on how much time has been devoted to making decisions. Most of the time decision-makers have to take decisions in a limited time frame as instructed by the management. Due to the time limit, decision-makers are not able to collect all the necessary information that influences decisions and are, also, not able to look for more alternatives.

2. Value and beliefs of decision-makers

In addition, the quality of decisions also depends upon the value and belief system of the decision-makers. Anyone’s reaction to a particular situation is more likely to depend on the individual’s values, likes and dislikes, thoughts, and beliefs. It is also a behavioural aspect of the decision-makers and reflects in their decisions related to goals, strategy-making activities. So, value-based decisions help in prioritizing tasks and making goals, identifying different solutions to problems, and finalizing the best solution or alternative.

3. Policies of organization

Decisions are affected by the policies of an organization. Decisions taken have to be in the boundary or within the limits of these policies. Decisions which violate policies are not considered for implementation. Though there is a scope to make changes in policies as per decision, most of the time decisions should be at par with the policy guidelines. However, a change in policy is a time-consuming task and requires lots of things to be considered before any change. Comparatively, a change in proposed decisions is much easier.

4. Other factors like budget, manpower, values of management also influence decision-making .

Types of decisions.

Decisions can be of different types depending upon their nature and influence:

1. Programmed and non-programmed decisions

Programmed decisions are meant for daily routine issues and for those problems that repeat frequently. A Set of tasks are defined to handle such problems or issues and are mostly initiated by the entry-level decision-makers.

For example, HR department issues like handling grievances related to leaves or attendance of employees require programmed decisions. Non-programmed decisions are made for tough situations where defining different alternatives is a challenging task. These types of decisions strategically affect organizations.

For example, decisions related to expanding the operation of an organization to other countries, launching a new product, introducing performance management system for the first time to the employees are non-programmed decisions where decision-making is a challenging task and these decisions are mostly taken by management or at the top-level.

2. Routine and strategy-oriented decisions

Routine decisions are a regular activity in an organization once identified. These are quick decisions and don’t require deep thinking or analysis. These decisions are generally taken by the bottom-management staff. Different alternatives are not required in these as everyone is aware of what action to take on a daily basis.

Examples of such decisions include what reports to generate from the biometric system of attendance by the HR staff.

Decisions, in which involvement of organizational goals, resources, and policies is required, are termed as strategic decisions. Strategy-based decisions are future-related and executed by the top management. These are for the long term and are centrally focused. A large amount of investment is required to execute strategic decisions. Different alternatives or course of actions are considered and evaluated to finalize such decisions.

For example, developing a performance management system (PMS) strategy for employees demands strategic decisions. Steps involved in strategic decision-making for formulating PMS strategy starts with identifying goal which might be retaining and motivating the quality staff. Further steps involved are: developing a process for monitoring performance and formulating a comprehensive PMS plan.

3. Policy-related and operational decisions

Decisions related to policy issues are policy-related or tactical decisions. These decisions come under the preview of the top management and leave a long-term impact. For example, changing leave structure or office timings are policy-related decisions.

Operating decisions are for operational functioning and on a daily basis. Middle- and bottom-level management is responsible for such decisions. Different departments or functions of an organization like sales, IT, production, purchase, accounts, or HR take operations decisions.

For example, Diwali bonus payment to employees is a policy matter and calculation of such bonus to handover to employees is considered an operational decision.

4. Organization-based and personal decisions

Decisions, taken by an individual as office staff, are organizational decisions. For example, conducting a campus interview decision by hiring executives is an organizational decision. Wherein, personal decisions are related to an individual’s decision to meet personal commitments. These are also known as life decisions. Buying a house is a personal decision.

5. Major and minor decisions

Major decisions are those which require much time, effort, and thinking to finalize and have a long-term impact. For example, a decision regarding higher studies whether to continue in own country or to go abroad is a major decision. Minor decisions are routine decisions and don’t require much time and deep thinking. Like purchasing stationery for different departments is a minor decision.

6. Individual and group decisions

Individual decisions are taken by one person i.e. routine decisions; as the decision of making an excel sheet for attendance management to keep the attendance record is an individual decision.

Decisions which are taken by a group of people aiming to achieve a common goal are group decisions. For example, employee engagement activities demand HR staff to work as a group and take decisions for better employee engagement programs.

Importance of Decision-Making

1. optimum utilization of resources.

With the help of decision-making, all resources of organizations i.e. money, men, material, machine, market and method are used carefully and as per requirement.

2. Problem-solving approach

By decision-making, organizations can determine and face different problems in working. It not only helps in identifying problems but also solving them by making correct and fast decisions.

3. Contributes to organizational growth

As decision-making ensures optimum utilization of resources, making the right decisions to solve problems or issues helps in achieving organizational goals and overall growth.

4. Encourage initiatives and innovations

Decision-making task is performed at all levels of organization i.e. top, middle and bottom. This motivates the staff members to contribute to decisions through brainstorming or alternatives to solve the problem. Thus, it encourages innovative thoughts and ideas which, in turn, help the organization to be at a competitive place in the market.

5. Employee motivation

Good decisions help in increasing the productivity of organizations that result in more profits. Surplus profits help in increasing compensation benefits to employees which ultimately boosts their morale and keeps them motivated.

To conclude, planning is a systematic process that supports organizations to carry out all its present and future activities to achieve desired objectives. Planning, being a continuous function, works well in adverse situations too. Plans can be modified and restructured as per requirement and available information.

Decision making is also an important activity that supports the organization by reducing risks in projects with quick and better decisions.

Related Posts

Organizational Design and Structure; Definition, Elements, Types, Pros, Cons

Management And Management Process

Paternalistic Leadership Style: Types, Examples

Trait Theory of Leadership

Internal Communication: Types, Examples, Importance

Balanced Scorecard: Components, Example

Excellent notes on planning and decision making i have ever seen, thank you keep posting on Management based topice with real example of companies how it is working.

thank you for good notes on planning and decision making

Add Comment Cancel Reply

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Account settings
• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• J Int Med Res
• v.48(11); 2020 Nov

Judgment and decision-making in clinical dentistry

Liviu feller.

1 Office of the Chair of School, School of Oral Health Sciences. Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Johan Lemmer

2 Department of Oral Medicine and Periodontology, School of Oral Health Sciences. Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Mbulaheni Simon Nemutandani

3 Chair of School of Oral Health Sciences. Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Raoul Ballyram

4 Department of Periodontology and Oral Medicine, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria, South Africa

Razia Abdool Gafaar Khammissa

5 Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, School of Oral Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences. University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The development of clinical judgment and decision-making skills is complex, requiring clinicians—whether students, novices, or experienced practitioners—to correlate information from their own experience; from discussions with colleagues; from attending professional meetings, conferences and congresses; and from studying the current literature. Feedback from treated cases will consolidate retention in memory of the complexities and management of past cases, and the conversion of this knowledge base into daily clinical practice. The purpose of this narrative review is to discuss factors related to clinical judgment and decision-making in clinical dentistry and how both narrative, intuitive, evidence-based data-driven information and statistical approaches contribute to the global process of gaining clinical expertise.

Today’s dentists face complex challenges; these include dealing not only with younger and healthier patients but also with aging populations who have an increasing number of illnesses, as well as with rapidly evolving biomedical and dental knowledge and technologies. To successfully meet these challenges, clinicians must regularly and continuously update their biomedical understanding and technical skills, which should result in enhanced quality of diagnosis (clinical judgment) and treatment planning (decision-making). 1 Clinical judgment and decision-making both use intuitive (rapid, non-analytical reasoning) and analytical (deliberate reasoning) cognitive processes, which integrate many factors including information obtained in a patient’s physical examination and medical history, prior clinical experience, deductive knowledge, and relevant statistical data. 2 – 5

In dentistry, as in medicine, clinical judgment and decision-making are complex processes 4 , 6 dealing with many uncertainties, including patient-specific health factors, treatment-related technical factors, financial constraints, and clinician-related factors such as experience, intelligence, fatigue, and mood. Skills in clinical judgment and decision-making vary substantially among clinicians, such that some are better diagnosticians than others. 7 , 8

The way in which information is communicated by the patient to the clinician influences the clinician’s clinical judgment and decision-making. Conversely, the way in which treatment choices and decisions are framed and communicated by the clinician may direct patients’ attention to particular details, affecting overall understanding and influencing their own process of judgment and decision-making, and ultimately, their choice of treatment. 9 , 10

There are different ways to inform patients about the frequency and severity of risks associated with treatment, which substantially vary in their effects. Different presentations of the same problem will bring about different judgments and decisions on the part of the patient. Low-probability events described in terms of relative frequencies (how many) are more heavily weighted than when these are described in more abstract terms, such as probability or chance (how likely). One should be aware of the intuitive human tendency to overestimate the risk of unlikely events, if these are over-weighted. 11

Although evidenced-based guidelines are important for clinical judgment and clinical decision-making, they cannot be applicable to, or appropriate for, all patients. 12 These guidelines do not take into consideration patient-specific clinical and biopathological data, which are essential to clinical decision-making, and ultimately, to the outcome of treatment. Furthermore, evidence-based treatment does not allow for the use of subjective tacit knowledge and wisdom or intuitive cognitive processes, which are crucial for the process of clinical judgment and for the development of clinical expertise. 2

Personal clinical experience refers to the clinical knowledge and wisdom assembled and integrated over time in memory, through the experience gained from treating a large number of patients with diverse medical or dental conditions. Personal clinical experience is critical for clinical judgment and decision-making. 2 , 13 In this context, clinical judgment refers to the cognitive processes of forming diagnoses, making choices of treatment, and conjecturing relevant prognoses. 14

When encountering the same medical or dental problem, clinical judgment and decision-making sometimes differ among clinicians. This is probably owing to the subjective nature of the cognitive mechanisms used by different clinicians in the process of clinical judgment, 15 as well as the uncertain and ambiguous nature of relevant clinical data that may be interpreted in several ways. 15

Compared with a novice, an experienced clinician has a higher knowledge level of the subject matter and is able to focus attention more effectively on the details of a clinical problem, to consciously generate and evaluate a greater number of potential strategies for solving a relevant problem, and to better assess and change the course of treatment on an ongoing basis as new information becomes available. These qualities confer upon the expert clinician effective and efficient analytical and problem-solving skills. 8

The purpose of this narrative review is to discuss factors related to clinical judgment and decision-making in clinical dentistry and how both narrative, intuitive, evidence-based, and data-driven information, as well as the statistical approach, contribute to the global process of gaining dental clinical expertise. Relevant databases and individual authoritative texts were critically analyzed and the findings integrated, to consider ways of improving clinical problem solving.

Cognitive executive functioning in relation to clinical judgment and decision-making

Executive functions refer to neurocognitive faculties including working memory, that is, the ability to update, integrate, and retain information; cognitive flexibility, which is the ability to shift between rules or modes of thought; inhibition of inappropriate responses; and attentional control. In general, all these permit formulation of higher-order cognitive processes such as reasoning, judgment, and decision-making, regulation of emotional responses, and control over cognition, self-gratification, and behavior patterns. Together, these processes enable execution of goal-directed behaviors and regulation of responses to psychosocial stressors and to noxious stimuli. 16 – 22 Dysfunctional executive functioning increases the risk of poor stress regulation and of impaired learning, clinical judgment, and decision-making. 18 , 21 , 22

The generation of executive functions resides in the prefrontal cortex, which is functionally connected to the limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus), which is engaged in processing emotion-related information; and to brainstem regions, which have roles in arousal, autonomic control, primitive emotional responses such as aggression and rage, and in predatory and sexual behaviors. 18 Intact neural connections between the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system are critical for cognitive functioning and for adaptive regulation of primitive, emotional, and stress responses. 18 Both behavioral responses and learning capacity are thus the outcome of coordinated interactions between autonomic, neuroendocrine, and psychological processes that require input from both the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex. 23

High-order cognitive processes that are executive function-driven can generate goal-directed behaviors that are mentally taxing rather than automatic or routine. 17 , 19 The reserves of mental energy fueling executive functions in the prefrontal cortex are limited. Repeated or continued exposure to psychosocial stressors, to involuntary negative emotions, and to fatigue may deplete these limited resources, leading to impairment of cognitive functioning. Such impairment may result in poor emotional control, judgment, and decision-making, with consequent maladaptive behavior and impaired learning. 16 , 18 , 19 , 24 , 25

Clinical judgment and decision-making that are initially cognitively effortful become routine with practice, such that high-level expert clinicians can solve clinical problems more frequently, more quickly, and with less cognitive effort than novice clinicians. Furthermore, experts perform standard procedures efficiently and effectively, almost automatically, with minimal focused attention. However, complex, difficult or atypical clinical scenarios demand, effortful, time-consuming, and focused analytical cognitive processes, even from clinical experts. 26

Performing complex clinical procedures demands constant focused attention to pertinent cues in the local environment, and changes in the environmental cues may affect the goals, objectives, and outcome of treatment, to which the clinician must adapt. Focusing concurrently on several clinical variables requires splitting of the limited mental resources for cognitive executive functioning, particularly that of attention, with the risk of maladaptively dealing with one or more variables. 3 , 26 This may lead to diagnostic errors. With increased experience, the clinician will be able to satisfactorily perform such complex tasks with less focused attention and cognitive effort.

Negative emotions or moods, such as psychological stress, depression, anxiety, anger, burn-out, loss of self-esteem, and loss of motivation; or negative physical sensations, like pain or fatigue, are some factors that may impair cognitive executive functioning, adversely impacting clinical judgment and decision-making. 26 This may result in a reduction in the quality of the clinician’s performance. 8 , 26 In contrast, positive emotions such as compassion, joy, hope, kindness, and goodwill may improve the ability to constructively evaluate clinical problems with consequent appropriate decision-making and enhanced clinical performance, leading to favorable clinical outcomes. 8

Factors influencing clinical judgment and decision-making in the learner and the inexperienced clinician

In dentistry, as in any other professions, acquisition of knowledge, and communicative and manual skills, require an environment conducive to learning. Continuous third-party assessment, with immediate constructive feedback, is an essential part of the process. Under such circumstances, with time and with repetition, cognitive skills will eventually be developed, such that sound clinical problem-based judgments, choices, and decisions can be made, with the outcome of effective and efficient clinical solutions but with the ability to change course according to changing circumstances. 11 , 13 , 27 Novices will then be able to largely take responsibility for their own further learning and development as clinicians and will gain cognitive, affective, and psychomotor capacities for continual dental education and training, at the same time becoming imbued with the moral and ethical responsibility of being lifelong learners. 28

Assessment should evaluate not only the learner’s performance but also the effectiveness of the teaching and training, and it should serve as the basis for meaningful interactions between learners and their academic teachers and clinical instructors. This should lead to thoughtful reflection by the learners, which is essential to self-learning and to the development of moral and ethical values and of empathy, as well as to improvement of the processes of clinical judgment and decision-making. Feedback and reflection reinforce the capacity to recognize patterns of diseases/conditions from previous clinical experience, to promote understanding and to facilitate integration of established and newly acquired knowledge. 4 , 25 , 27 – 29 For the fortunate few, clinical experience will be crowned by clinical wisdom.

The formulation of a treatment plan should be based on obtaining statistical evidence from a large number of similar cases (evidenced-based treatment) and not based on individual case reports, as is all too often done. 11 , 27 , 30 In general, there is a common lack of awareness of the potential adverse effects of decision-making based on a small sample size. 11 The clinician’s judgments and decisions regarding the choice of the most appropriate patient-specific dental treatment plan should be guided by personal experience, by evidence-based knowledge, by the expert opinion of colleagues, and in consultation with the patient after presentation of the proposed treatment plan and alternatives. However, the outcome of a successfully executed treatment plan is usually unpredictable, and things may go wrong. Therefore, it is essential to inform the patient of the risks associated with treatment.

Medical and dental professionals may deal with the same patient on different occasions. According to their mood and emotional state, which is determined by any number of personal circumstances, as outlined above, these professionals may come up with different diagnoses and treatment plans. 31 For example, on different occasions, the same oral pathologist may make inconsistent histopathological diagnoses of the same biopsy specimen; even more frequently, diagnoses of the same biopsy specimen may differ when made independently by different oral pathologists. 32

Factors influencing clinical judgment and decision-making in clinical practice

As mentioned, errors in clinical judgment and inconsistent diagnoses are not uncommon and are usually caused by common cognitive biases. There is an intuitive tendency to search for and to interpret new information that confirms prior beliefs and preferred hypotheses and a tendency to effectively retain and remember new information that supports a pre-existing cognitive position. 33 Cognitive errors can also be attributed to various extrinsic and intrinsic factors, including limited financial resources, time constraints, limited cognitive executive functioning, work overload, overconfidence, deficiency of relevant information, incorrect evaluation and inappropriate prioritization of elements of the clinical information, poor communication skills, or simply to incompetence. 3

One tends to make decisions based on intuition (rapid, almost automatic and effortless, non-analytical reasoning) rather than on time-consuming, analytical, deliberately attention-demanding reasoning; both are influenced by mood, emotions, and stress, which fluctuate considerably. There is an inherent element of uncertainty in predicting the outcome of any treatment plan because the formulation of a treatment plan relies heavily on the clinician’s familiarity with similar cases (heuristic planning) and on the cognitive ease with which relevant information comes to mind. The information retrieved is determined by factors such as characteristics of the event that generated the information, the characteristics of cognitive executive functions, and the quality of the emotional state or mood of the clinician at that time. 13 , 15 , 25 , 29 , 30 , 34 , 35 Intuitive errors of reasoning tend to be recognized by the clinician and corrected by deliberate analytical cognitive and metacognitive processes. 4 , 6 Both intuitive and analytical reasoning are generally used concurrently in clinical judgment and decision-making. 25 , 29 , 36

Intuitive cognitive processes in diagnosis and treatment planning are prone to bias, and deliberate rational analytical reasoning is time consuming and mentally taxing and does not always lead to predictably successful or beneficial outcomes. Therefore, the question to be asked is, when and at what stage of the diagnostic process—within the constraints of time and workload in clinical practice—should the systematic analytical approach be used? 26

In diagnosis and in planning a treatment for a new patient, the clinician retrieves from memory (i.e., from their abstract store of knowledge) the relevant information linked to pattern recognition of similar, previously managed clinical cases. This is how the cognitive process of clinical judgment and decision-making operates. Thus, with the management of each new patient, there is evolution of new knowledge and understanding, generated by integration of new and old clinical experiences. Together with wisdom gained from formal continuing education and evidence-based data, the ability to solve novel and/or complex clinical problems is enhanced. 1 , 26 , 27 , 36 However, diagnostic errors can never be completely eliminated because occasional cognitive biases and mistakes in interpretation of data are unavoidable. 26

Frequent conscious reflection on daily clinical experience promotes retention of newly acquired knowledge and understanding and its integration with existing knowledge. This, in turn, improves the processes of clinical judgment and decision-making and perfects the technical skills of the clinician. 27 , 37 Thus, with daily clinical practice and critical reflection upon their own reasoning and decisions, expert clinicians create a bank of pattern-recognition and memory-anchored prototypes. 36 , 38 Experienced clinicians diagnose and decide on treatment of routine cases intuitively, using automatic pattern recognition and non-analytical reasoning. Deliberate analytical reasoning is activated only by atypical or difficult clinical problems. 27 , 38

With clinical experience, newly acquired clinical knowledge is integrated with existing theoretical biomedical knowledge, forming a meaningful concept of the clinical condition in the mental image. Understanding of the pathogenesis of a disease consolidates its features in memory, improves recollection, and enhances the processes of judgment and decision-making. 39

Ignoring information about the incidence and prevalence of any clinical condition, constructing clinical judgments on the basis of weak evidence or subjective first impressions, underestimating the role of chance, evaluating evidence on the basis of unsubstantiated prior concepts, and focusing on obvious evidence but missing less obvious evidence, are all factors contributing to cognitive biases, predisposing to inconsistent decision-making. 11 , 13 , 30 , 40 , 41

If a clinician has elicited an incomplete medical history and does not understand the technical complexities of the proposed treatment, or is simply overconfident, then the treatment may be fraught with unforeseen risks, which would have been avoided had the clinician been more knowledgeable and familiar with the pros and cons of such a treatment plan. 11

To minimize the random variability in diagnosis and treatment planning, in every case, there must be intense focus of attention and critical deliberation on the details of the medical history, signs and symptoms, and routine consideration of plausible alternatives during the process of diagnosis and formulation of a treatment plan. 4 , 7 , 31 , 34 , 36

To avoid the common tendency for cognitive bias, whenever possible (and particularly for complex cases), evidence-based guidelines, algorithms, and statistical methods should be used for diagnosis, prognostication of treatment, and decision-making, rather than relying solely on personal clinical experience. 14 , 31 , 41 Evidence-based dentistry requires searching and evaluation of the literature, selecting relevant studies and determining their validity and importance, and using this scientific information in treatment planning. 42

Generally, clinicians intuitively choose an unequivocal mode of action (yes versus no, do versus do not do) rather than choose a possibly more statistically informative but equivocal mode of action. The adoption of statistical information into an unequivocal decision is cognitively demanding. 43

Evidence-based dental clinical practice

Evidenced-based clinical practice refers to the application of current supposedly best available evidence from randomized trials and meta-analytical studies. However, not all evidence-based information is of unquestionable scientific quality because of bias and inconsistency brought about by variabilities in study design and methodology, in methods of statistical analysis, and in criteria for exclusion of selective subgroups from the population investigated. 35 , 44

To provide evidence-based care, clinicians must obtain a comprehensive picture of their patient’s problem, must have the skills to efficiently search the medical/dental literature and to select relevant studies, to scientifically evaluate the quality of the captured evidence, and to apply the best available evidence whenever possible, to reach a clinical decision. In general, evidence-based practice is likely to improve clinical care and treatment outcomes; 42 however, treatment modalities that have been found in evidence-based research to not be completely effective for the average patient may nevertheless be beneficial for certain patients. 45 , 46

Although best available evidence may suffice for the average, randomized patient, others remain who do not fit the characteristics of the “average” patient. For these patients, randomized and meta-analytical studies do not provide guidance for the management of deviations in symptoms, clinical course, and pathobiology of disease, nor do such studies take into account patient-specific risk factors, comorbidities, response to prior treatment, compliance, social support, psychological status, or lifestyle. These are all important factors influencing clinical judgment and decision-making. 44

Judgment and decision-making in clinical practice should not be determined only by the “best available evidence”. Other factors, including those listed above, together with the patient’s personal preferences, expert clinical opinions, personal clinical experience, and observational research, must be taken into account. 2 , 44 Furthermore, because the realm of clinical practice is inherently contingent and ambiguous, strictly evidence-based practice cannot eliminate errors in clinical judgment or therapeutic decisions, which are related to uncertainly. 2

Framing effects

Clinicians should be aware of the effects of “framing” on patients who are engaged in making decisions about their treatment. There is no doubt that the patient’s decision-making and their choice of treatment options can be strongly influenced by a clinician’s choice of words in framing the nature of the condition and the proposed treatment plan. 47 , 48 This framing effect is also influenced by many patient-factors including age, sex, thinking and analytical processes, statistical understanding, mental health, emotional state, lifestyle, cultural background, and whether the patient turns to relatives and friends for advice and discussion. 47 , 49

Frank, emphatic, and comprehensive but relaxed discussion with the patient regarding the treatment plan can go a long way toward bringing into perspective a plan of treatment that might initially have been biased by the framing effect. As a result, the patient may also be more compliant and more likely be satisfied with the outcome of treatment. 47

Comprehensive patient care is the outcome of complex judgment, decision-making, treatment choices, and the application of a wide range of clinical skills under the uncertainties of everyday clinical practice. Clinical judgment is a complex adaptive cognitive process with unavoidable variations in details among practitioners. Clinical judgment and knowledge-based technical skills are acquired by practice experience, frequent feedback, and reflection.

Well-designed algorithms and guidelines, incorporating principles of statistics and evidence-based data, can be useful adjuncts to personal experience and expert opinion. Neither errors in diagnosis nor in treatment planning nor in execution of the treatment plan can be completely avoided because of individual cognitive biases and mistakes in data interpretation, and because of human factors of uncertainty that so often characterize clinical practice.

Authors’ contributions: LF and JL developed the study design. LF and JL wrote the first draft of the manuscript. LF, RAGK, SM, RB, and JL critically revised the second and final draft. RB and RAGK finalized the references. RAGK managed the process of submission.

Declaration of conflicting interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Funding: This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

ORCID iD: Liviu Feller https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5221-7805

Definition. Simply put, critical thinking is the act of deliberately analyzing information so that you can make better judgements and decisions. It involves using things like logic, reasoning, and creativity, to draw conclusions and generally understand things better. This may sound like a pretty broad definition, and that's because critical ...

Using Critical Thinking Skills in Problem Solving. Think of problem solving as a process with four Ps: Define the problem, generate possibilities, create a plan, and perform your plan. Step 1: Define the problem. To define a problem effectively, understand what a problem is—a mismatch between what you want and what you have.

In recent decades, approaches to critical thinking have generally taken a practical turn, pivoting away from more abstract accounts - such as emphasizing the logical relations that hold between statements (Ennis, 1964) - and moving toward an emphasis on belief and action.According to the definition that Robert Ennis (2018) has been advocating for the last few decades, critical thinking is ...

The definition of critical thinking is that it is the practice of collecting, analyzing, and carefully evaluating information so you can form a more informed decision. Critical thinking means that you are not letting your personal biases and feelings interfere with your decisions; instead, you let the information you gathered speak for themselves and then you make your call based on which is ...

Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment. To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources. Critical thinking skills help you to: Identify credible sources. Evaluate and respond to arguments.

Critical thinking is a way of looking at things to find the truth in a situation, based on evidence, observation, and logic, versus what we infer or assume. It involves the ability to view a situation from different perspectives in order to formulate the best possible course of action. Applying these principles can help you come up with better ...

Critical thinking is the discipline of rigorously and skillfully using information, experience, observation, and reasoning to guide your decisions, actions, and beliefs. You'll need to actively question every step of your thinking process to do it well. Collecting, analyzing and evaluating information is an important skill in life, and a highly ...

According to Helsdingen, we might improve our intuitive approach by bringing critical thinking in the decision making process. The researchers tested a method for including critical thinking in decision making. First, they explained the story model of decision making. Then, they prompted the learners to reflect on their story and thinking ...

The process of critical decision-making requires a desire for the best possible knowledge or outcome, even if, as a result, personal preconceptions, beliefs or self-interests are undermined. Open-minded. Successful critical decision-makers are tolerant to divergent views, and are aware of possible bias in their thought process. Analytical.

The first step to making any decision is simple: Identify the problem. As an example, say you're trying to choose between two apartments. One is cheaper but farther away from work. The other is closer—and nicer!—but much more expensive. Which one would you choose? Depending on what you value, you probably have some idea.

Open-mindedness: This critical thinking skill helps you analyze and process information to come to an unbiased conclusion. Part of the critical thinking process is letting your personal biases go and coming to a conclusion based on all of the information. Problem solving: Because critical thinking emphasizes coming to the best conclusion based ...

Explore the difference between being judgmental and good judgment, and learn about actionable techniques for improving quality decision-making ability. 188,611 viewers Released Jan 24, 2020 7

Critical thinking is applied by nurses in the process of solving problems of patients and decision-making process with creativity to enhance the effect. It is an essential process for a safe, efficient and skillful nursing intervention. Critical thinking according to Scriven and Paul is the mental active process and subtle perception, analysis ...

Critical thinking underlies independent and interdependent decision making. Critical thinking includes questioning, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, inference, inductive and deductive reasoning, intuition, application, and creativity 8 (p. 9). Course work or ethical experiences should provide the graduate with the knowledge and skills to:

In decision making, critical thinking is a vital skill that allows individuals to make informed choices. It enables them to: Analyze options and their potential consequences. Evaluate the credibility of sources and the quality of information. Identify biases, assumptions, and values that may influence the decision.

Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable phenomena, and research findings. Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between useful and less useful ...

Using Critical Thinking. Critical thinking is a powerful cognitive tool that empowers individuals to navigate the complexities of the modern world. Critical thinking enhances decision-making ...

Critical thinking skills examples. There are six main skills you can develop to successfully analyze facts and situations and come up with logical conclusions: 1. Analytical thinking. Being able to properly analyze information is the most important aspect of critical thinking. This implies gathering information and interpreting it, but also ...

Critical Thinking and Clinical Reasoning. Nurses make decisions while providing patient care by using critical thinking and clinical reasoning. Critical thinking is a broad term used in nursing that includes "reasoning about clinical issues such as teamwork, collaboration, and streamlining workflow." [1] Using critical thinking means that nurses take extra steps to maintain patient safety ...

Planning requires robust analytical abilities i.e. analyzing information, problem-solving, decision-making, critical thinking, etc. at each level and function. 6. Forecast. ... especially in forecasting. Planning predicts various risks related to business and further helps in generating action plans to control and reduce these risks. So, with ...

1. Create engaging learning activities. Critical thinking is a mindset as much as a skill. To get your learners thinking, you need their attention and willing participation. Don't seat them in front of a block of uninterrupted text in a binder, on a screen, or in a presentation and ask them to absorb the material—because they won't.

Furthermore, the relationship between critical thinking and mental health was mediated by motor impulsivity (acting on the spur of the moment) and non-planning impulsivity (making decisions without careful forethought). These findings provide a preliminary account of how human critical thinking associate with mental health.

Results: Among 34 eligible studies from various global regions, 22 addressed critical thinking, 8 examined clinical decision-making, and 4 explored both skills. Diverse skill levels were observed for critical thinking and clinical decision-making, with a limited subset of measurement tools used in meta-analyses due to notable heterogeneity.

LIVE: Opening Ceremony of the three-day Annual Police Officer's Conference

0 likes, 0 comments - skyhighaviationserviecs on March 2, 2023: "IAM's role in security IAM plays a series of critical roles at several places in an organization ..."

Conclusion. Comprehensive patient care is the outcome of complex judgment, decision-making, treatment choices, and the application of a wide range of clinical skills under the uncertainties of everyday clinical practice. Clinical judgment is a complex adaptive cognitive process with unavoidable variations in details among practitioners.