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Christopher Columbus and the Discovery of the New World

In the annals of history, few names resonate as profoundly as Christopher Columbus’s. To many, he is a visionary navigator, a daring explorer who courageously ventured into the uncharted waters of the Atlantic, driven by an insatiable curiosity and a fierce determination. To others, he symbolizes European imperialism, whose voyages led to the colonization and subjugation of indigenous populations. This dichotomy presents a tantalizing enigma: Who was Christopher Columbus truly? Beyond the folklore and mythology, who was the man who set foot on the shores of the New World in 1492? This essay will traverse the seas of time, dispelling myths and unearthing facts as we journey alongside Columbus on his epoch-making voyage to the Americas. Through a lens of historical scrutiny, we will attempt to understand this seminal figure’s motivations, challenges, and legacies, setting the stage for a deep exploration into the repercussions of his discoveries.

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The landscape of the late 15th century was a tapestry of burgeoning empires vying for dominion and wealth. Europe, especially, was in the throes of a profound transformation. Renaissance ideals were fanning the flames of knowledge, art, and human potential. Cities like Florence and Venice were not just magnificent hubs of culture; they were cauldrons of ambition, with tales of Marco Polo’s adventures to the East echoing in their streets.

Against this backdrop, nations like Spain and Portugal were engaged in an intense rivalry, seeking the elusive and profitable passage to the East. The overland Silk Road, though historically significant, had its limitations and dangers. Moreover, the Ottomans’ control over Constantinople in 1453 challenged Europe’s access to the Asian trade markets. Maritime supremacy became the watchword of the day.

Enter Christopher Columbus – a Genoese sailor with a grand vision. Armed with a blend of experience and audacity, Columbus believed the key to these Eastern riches was not by navigating around Africa, as the Portuguese were attempting, but by sailing westward. Though met with skepticism from various quarters, this idea found a sympathetic ear in the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella. Columbus’s ambitious dream was poised to become a reality with their patronage.

However, more than the promise of trade fueled this venture. There was an undercurrent of religious zeal, as Christendom hoped to find a route to spread Christianity to the East. Columbus himself harbored such hopes, as evident in his writings.

This chapter sets the stage for Columbus’s monumental voyage, exploring the confluence of economic aspirations, geopolitical rivalries, and personal ambitions that propelled him into the vastness of the Atlantic.

The Journey

In the late summer of 1492, the harbors of Palos, Spain, were abuzz with frenetic activity. Three ships – the Niña, the Pinta, and the stately Santa Maria – anchored side by side were being outfitted for an expedition into the unknown. Sailors exchanged whispers of both anticipation and trepidation. Many were venturing out of the confines of the known world, fueled by a cocktail of hope, fear, and curiosity.

Under Columbus’s leadership, the flotilla embarked on this daring voyage, charting waters that, according to some naysayers of the time, hid leviathans and where the horizon might drop into oblivion. The ocean’s vastness proved to be both a challenge and a marvel. Stars that once felt familiar to these seasoned sailors took on new patterns, and the compass, their trusted ally, began behaving unpredictably as they ventured farther from home.

Days turned into weeks. The monotony of the open sea, with its endless blue horizons, tested the crew’s mettle. Whispers of mutiny began to circulate as land remained elusive. However, with a blend of stern leadership and guile, Columbus managed to quell the rising discontent, promising his crew that they were on the cusp of discovery.

Then, in the pre-dawn hours of October 12th, a cry echoed from the Pinta’s lookout: “Tierra! Tierra!” (Land! Land!). The relentless expanse of the Atlantic had finally yielded its secret. As dawn broke, an island, lush and teeming with life, unfurled on the horizon – presenting a world untouched by European footsteps. Unaware that they had stumbled upon a new continent altogether, Columbus and his crew believed they had reached the outskirts of Asia.

The challenges and tribulations of this voyage were not merely physical but psychological. Columbus’s journey was a testament to human endurance and navigation skills and the indomitable spirit of exploration and discovery. This chapter seeks to recreate the highs and lows, the anxieties and elations, of this historic passage across the Atlantic.

Encounter with the Natives

As Columbus and his men disembarked, they found themselves amidst a world startlingly distinct from their European milieu. This land was painted with the vivid hues of tropical flora and filled with the harmonious notes of unfamiliar fauna. Nevertheless, most arresting were the inhabitants of this newfound land, the native peoples, who looked on with curiosity and caution.

The indigenous tribes, diverse in their cultures and languages, had lived in harmony with their surroundings for millennia. Their societies were intricate tapestries of tradition, spirituality, and communal kinship. From the intricate patterns they weaved in their baskets to the tales they spun around evening fires, these tribes possessed a vibrant heritage.

Initial encounters were marked by a sense of wonderment on both sides. The natives, skin bronzed by the sun and adorned with feathers and beads, approached the Europeans, fascinated by their pale complexions, shining armor, and large vessels. In his journals, Columbus often vacillated between admiration for their gentle nature and a patronizing tone, noting their “naivety” as an opportunity for both conversion to Christianity and subjugation.

However, as days turned into months, the veneer of mutual fascination began to crack. The Europeans’ insatiable hunger for gold and other treasures put them at odds with the indigenous populations. Barter turned to coercion, and coercion soon gave way to violence. Many natives were forced into servitude, their freedoms curtailed, and their cultures derided. The dichotomy of the Europeans’ approach – marveling at the ‘New World’ while attempting to mold it in their image – set the stage for centuries of colonial conflict and cultural erosion.

The Impact of the Discovery

The wake of Columbus’s voyages sent ripples across the Atlantic and worldwide, ushering in an era of transformation on an unprecedented scale. This newly discovered realm, abundant in resources and potential, became the cynosure of European ambitions, altering geopolitics, economies, and societies in ways previously unimagined.

Economically, the ‘New World’ opened up a treasure trove for Europe. Precious metals, particularly gold and silver from the mines of South America, began flooding European coffers. This influx of wealth, while bolstering the fortunes of monarchies like Spain, also wreaked havoc on European economies by leading to inflation and economic disparities.

Nevertheless, it was not just mineral wealth that reshaped the global landscape. The Columbian Exchange, as historians call it, was a vast bi-directional transfer of plants, animals, technologies, and even diseases. Tomatoes, potatoes, and maize, staple diets of many countries today, were introduced to Europe, while horses, cattle, and wheat made their way to the Americas. The cultural and culinary landscapes of entire continents were rewritten, creating a rich tapestry of global interconnectedness.

However, this exchange came with its shadowy underbelly. Diseases from Europe, such as smallpox, for which the indigenous populations had no immunity, decimated tribes, wiping out vast swathes of native inhabitants. It is a somber testament to the unintended consequences of exploration.

On the sociopolitical front, the discovery heralded the rise of European colonial empires. Territories were claimed, borders were drawn, and indigenous populations were often subjugated and marginalized in their ancestral lands. The seeds of modern nation-states in the Americas were sown, often drenched in the blood of colonial conflict and native resistance.

As waves of European settlers arrived, they also brought their beliefs, religions, and ways of governance, forever altering the societal mosaic of the New World. The spread of Christianity, in particular, became a cornerstone of colonial policy, leading to the establishment of missions and the often forceful conversion of indigenous populations.

Modern Perspectives

As the mists of time roll forward, the figure of Christopher Columbus, once celebrated with near-mythic reverence, now stands at the intersection of evolving historical narratives and present-day discourses. Today, as we stand on the precipice of a globalized, interconnected world, the legacy of Columbus is reevaluated through lenses tinted with nuances and introspection.

The earlier portrayals of Columbus, especially in Western education, painted him as an intrepid explorer, a symbol of human tenacity and the quest for knowledge. Parades, statues, and even a national holiday in the United States were instituted in his honor, commemorating the ‘discovery’ of a new land. To many, Columbus became emblematic of the spirit of exploration and the breaking of frontiers.

However, a paradigm shift began to unfold in the latter half of the 20th century and into the 21st. Historians, anthropologists, and indigenous activists began to spotlight the darker facets of the Columbian encounter. The tales of exploitation, enslavement, and ecological upheaval started to challenge the monolithic narrative of Columbus as a hero. In modern classrooms and public discourses, the emphasis shifted to understanding the profound human and environmental costs that accompanied the European incursion into the Americas.

Furthermore, indigenous voices, long marginalized in retelling their own history, began to resurface with vigor. Their oral histories, traditions, and perspectives provided a counter-narrative, re-centering the story from one of ‘discovery’ to one of ‘invasion’ or ‘encounter.’ The implications of this linguistic shift are profound, reframing the entire narrative to be more inclusive and representative.

Today, statues of Columbus, once erected with pride, have become flashpoints of contention in some regions, with debates raging over their removal or preservation. These debates are emblematic of a broader societal reckoning with colonial legacies and the quest for historical truth.

Columbus’s discovery of the New World changed the course of history. While his achievements in navigation and exploration cannot be denied, it is essential to approach his legacy with a nuanced understanding. The history is enlightening and cautionary, reminding us that every action has repercussions.

By focusing on the various facets of Columbus’s journey and the subsequent consequences, this essay sample offers a comprehensive overview of a turning point in global history. The aim is to foster a balanced perspective, highlighting both the achievements and the dark sides of the era of exploration.

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Christopher Columbus

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 11, 2023 | Original: November 9, 2009

The explorer Christopher Columbus made four trips across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain: in 1492, 1493, 1498 and 1502. He was determined to find a direct water route west from Europe to Asia, but he never did. Instead, he stumbled upon the Americas. Though he did not “discover” the so-called New World—millions of people already lived there—his journeys marked the beginning of centuries of exploration and colonization of North and South America.

Christopher Columbus and the Age of Discovery

During the 15th and 16th centuries, leaders of several European nations sponsored expeditions abroad in the hope that explorers would find great wealth and vast undiscovered lands. The Portuguese were the earliest participants in this “ Age of Discovery ,” also known as “ Age of Exploration .”

Starting in about 1420, small Portuguese ships known as caravels zipped along the African coast, carrying spices, gold and other goods as well as enslaved people from Asia and Africa to Europe.

Did you know? Christopher Columbus was not the first person to propose that a person could reach Asia by sailing west from Europe. In fact, scholars argue that the idea is almost as old as the idea that the Earth is round. (That is, it dates back to early Rome.)

Other European nations, particularly Spain, were eager to share in the seemingly limitless riches of the “Far East.” By the end of the 15th century, Spain’s “ Reconquista ”—the expulsion of Jews and Muslims out of the kingdom after centuries of war—was complete, and the nation turned its attention to exploration and conquest in other areas of the world.

Early Life and Nationality 

Christopher Columbus, the son of a wool merchant, is believed to have been born in Genoa, Italy, in 1451. When he was still a teenager, he got a job on a merchant ship. He remained at sea until 1476, when pirates attacked his ship as it sailed north along the Portuguese coast.

The boat sank, but the young Columbus floated to shore on a scrap of wood and made his way to Lisbon, where he eventually studied mathematics, astronomy, cartography and navigation. He also began to hatch the plan that would change the world forever.

Christopher Columbus' First Voyage

At the end of the 15th century, it was nearly impossible to reach Asia from Europe by land. The route was long and arduous, and encounters with hostile armies were difficult to avoid. Portuguese explorers solved this problem by taking to the sea: They sailed south along the West African coast and around the Cape of Good Hope.

But Columbus had a different idea: Why not sail west across the Atlantic instead of around the massive African continent? The young navigator’s logic was sound, but his math was faulty. He argued (incorrectly) that the circumference of the Earth was much smaller than his contemporaries believed it was; accordingly, he believed that the journey by boat from Europe to Asia should be not only possible, but comparatively easy via an as-yet undiscovered Northwest Passage . 

He presented his plan to officials in Portugal and England, but it was not until 1492 that he found a sympathetic audience: the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile .

Columbus wanted fame and fortune. Ferdinand and Isabella wanted the same, along with the opportunity to export Catholicism to lands across the globe. (Columbus, a devout Catholic, was equally enthusiastic about this possibility.)

Columbus’ contract with the Spanish rulers promised that he could keep 10 percent of whatever riches he found, along with a noble title and the governorship of any lands he should encounter.

Where Did Columbus' Ships, Niña, Pinta and Santa Maria, Land?

On August 3, 1492, Columbus and his crew set sail from Spain in three ships: the Niña , the Pinta and the Santa Maria . On October 12, the ships made landfall—not in the East Indies, as Columbus assumed, but on one of the Bahamian islands, likely San Salvador.

For months, Columbus sailed from island to island in what we now know as the Caribbean, looking for the “pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, and other objects and merchandise whatsoever” that he had promised to his Spanish patrons, but he did not find much. In January 1493, leaving several dozen men behind in a makeshift settlement on Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), he left for Spain.

He kept a detailed diary during his first voyage. Christopher Columbus’s journal was written between August 3, 1492, and November 6, 1492 and mentions everything from the wildlife he encountered, like dolphins and birds, to the weather to the moods of his crew. More troublingly, it also recorded his initial impressions of the local people and his argument for why they should be enslaved.

“They… brought us parrots and balls of cotton and spears and many other things, which they exchanged for the glass beads and hawks’ bells," he wrote. "They willingly traded everything they owned… They were well-built, with good bodies and handsome features… They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. They have no iron… They would make fine servants… With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want.”

Columbus gifted the journal to Isabella upon his return.

Christopher Columbus's Later Voyages

About six months later, in September 1493, Columbus returned to the Americas. He found the Hispaniola settlement destroyed and left his brothers Bartolomeo and Diego Columbus behind to rebuild, along with part of his ships’ crew and hundreds of enslaved indigenous people.

Then he headed west to continue his mostly fruitless search for gold and other goods. His group now included a large number of indigenous people the Europeans had enslaved. In lieu of the material riches he had promised the Spanish monarchs, he sent some 500 enslaved people to Queen Isabella. The queen was horrified—she believed that any people Columbus “discovered” were Spanish subjects who could not be enslaved—and she promptly and sternly returned the explorer’s gift.

In May 1498, Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic for the third time. He visited Trinidad and the South American mainland before returning to the ill-fated Hispaniola settlement, where the colonists had staged a bloody revolt against the Columbus brothers’ mismanagement and brutality. Conditions were so bad that Spanish authorities had to send a new governor to take over.

Meanwhile, the native Taino population, forced to search for gold and to work on plantations, was decimated (within 60 years after Columbus landed, only a few hundred of what may have been 250,000 Taino were left on their island). Christopher Columbus was arrested and returned to Spain in chains.

In 1502, cleared of the most serious charges but stripped of his noble titles, the aging Columbus persuaded the Spanish crown to pay for one last trip across the Atlantic. This time, Columbus made it all the way to Panama—just miles from the Pacific Ocean—where he had to abandon two of his four ships after damage from storms and hostile natives. Empty-handed, the explorer returned to Spain, where he died in 1506.

Legacy of Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus did not “discover” the Americas, nor was he even the first European to visit the “New World.” (Viking explorer Leif Erikson had sailed to Greenland and Newfoundland in the 11th century.)

However, his journey kicked off centuries of exploration and exploitation on the American continents. The Columbian Exchange transferred people, animals, food and disease across cultures. Old World wheat became an American food staple. African coffee and Asian sugar cane became cash crops for Latin America, while American foods like corn, tomatoes and potatoes were introduced into European diets. 

Today, Columbus has a controversial legacy —he is remembered as a daring and path-breaking explorer who transformed the New World, yet his actions also unleashed changes that would eventually devastate the native populations he and his fellow explorers encountered.

HISTORY Vault: Columbus the Lost Voyage

Ten years after his 1492 voyage, Columbus, awaiting the gallows on criminal charges in a Caribbean prison, plotted a treacherous final voyage to restore his reputation.

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History Resources

Columbus reports on his first voyage, 1493

A spotlight on a primary source by christopher columbus.

On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail from Spain to find an all-water route to Asia. On October 12, more than two months later, Columbus landed on an island in the Bahamas that he called San Salvador; the natives called it Guanahani.

For nearly five months, Columbus explored the Caribbean, particularly the islands of Juana (Cuba) and Hispaniola (Santo Domingo), before returning to Spain. He left thirty-nine men to build a settlement called La Navidad in present-day Haiti. He also kidnapped several Native Americans (between ten and twenty-five) to take back to Spain—only eight survived. Columbus brought back small amounts of gold as well as native birds and plants to show the richness of the continent he believed to be Asia.

When Columbus arrived back in Spain on March 15, 1493, he immediately wrote a letter announcing his discoveries to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who had helped finance his trip. The letter was written in Spanish and sent to Rome, where it was printed in Latin by Stephan Plannck. Plannck mistakenly left Queen Isabella’s name out of the pamphlet’s introduction but quickly realized his error and reprinted the pamphlet a few days later. The copy shown here is the second, corrected edition of the pamphlet.

The Latin printing of this letter announced the existence of the American continent throughout Europe. “I discovered many islands inhabited by numerous people. I took possession of all of them for our most fortunate King by making public proclamation and unfurling his standard, no one making any resistance,” Columbus wrote.

In addition to announcing his momentous discovery, Columbus’s letter also provides observations of the native people’s culture and lack of weapons, noting that “they are destitute of arms, which are entirely unknown to them, and for which they are not adapted; not on account of any bodily deformity, for they are well made, but because they are timid and full of terror.” Writing that the natives are “fearful and timid . . . guileless and honest,” Columbus declares that the land could easily be conquered by Spain, and the natives “might become Christians and inclined to love our King and Queen and Princes and all the people of Spain.”

An English translation of this document is available.

I have determined to write you this letter to inform you of everything that has been done and discovered in this voyage of mine.

On the thirty-third day after leaving Cadiz I came into the Indian Sea, where I discovered many islands inhabited by numerous people. I took possession of all of them for our most fortunate King by making public proclamation and unfurling his standard, no one making any resistance. The island called Juana, as well as the others in its neighborhood, is exceedingly fertile. It has numerous harbors on all sides, very safe and wide, above comparison with any I have ever seen. Through it flow many very broad and health-giving rivers; and there are in it numerous very lofty mountains. All these island are very beautiful, and of quite different shapes; easy to be traversed, and full of the greatest variety of trees reaching to the stars. . . .

In the island, which I have said before was called Hispana , there are very lofty and beautiful mountains, great farms, groves and fields, most fertile both for cultivation and for pasturage, and well adapted for constructing buildings. The convenience of the harbors in this island, and the excellence of the rivers, in volume and salubrity, surpass human belief, unless on should see them. In it the trees, pasture-lands and fruits different much from those of Juana. Besides, this Hispana abounds in various kinds of species, gold and metals. The inhabitants . . . are all, as I said before, unprovided with any sort of iron, and they are destitute of arms, which are entirely unknown to them, and for which they are not adapted; not on account of any bodily deformity, for they are well made, but because they are timid and full of terror. . . . But when they see that they are safe, and all fear is banished, they are very guileless and honest, and very liberal of all they have. No one refuses the asker anything that he possesses; on the contrary they themselves invite us to ask for it. They manifest the greatest affection towards all of us, exchanging valuable things for trifles, content with the very least thing or nothing at all. . . . I gave them many beautiful and pleasing things, which I had brought with me, for no return whatever, in order to win their affection, and that they might become Christians and inclined to love our King and Queen and Princes and all the people of Spain; and that they might be eager to search for and gather and give to us what they abound in and we greatly need.

Questions for Discussion

Read the document introduction and transcript in order to answer these questions.

• Columbus described the Natives he first encountered as “timid and full of fear.” Why did he then capture some Natives and bring them aboard his ships?
• Imagine the thoughts of the Europeans as they first saw land in the “New World.” What do you think would have been their most immediate impression? Explain your answer.
• Which of the items Columbus described would have been of most interest to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella? Why?
• Why did Columbus describe the islands and their inhabitants in great detail?
• It is said that this voyage opened the period of the “Columbian Exchange.” Why do you think that term has been attached to this period of time?

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Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer Christopher Columbus discovered the “New World” of the Americas on an expedition sponsored by King Ferdinand of Spain in 1492.

c. 1451-1506

Quick Facts

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Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer and navigator. In 1492, he sailed across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain in the Santa Maria , with the Pinta and the Niña ships alongside, hoping to find a new route to Asia. Instead, he and his crew landed on an island in present-day Bahamas—claiming it for Spain and mistakenly “discovering” the Americas. Between 1493 and 1504, he made three more voyages to the Caribbean and South America, believing until his death that he had found a shorter route to Asia. Columbus has been credited—and blamed—for opening up the Americas to European colonization.

FULL NAME: Cristoforo Colombo BORN: c. 1451 DIED: May 20, 1506 BIRTHPLACE: Genoa, Italy SPOUSE: Filipa Perestrelo (c. 1479-1484) CHILDREN: Diego and Fernando

Christopher Columbus, whose real name was Cristoforo Colombo, was born in 1451 in the Republic of Genoa, part of what is now Italy. He is believed to have been the son of Dominico Colombo and Susanna Fontanarossa and had four siblings: brothers Bartholomew, Giovanni, and Giacomo, and a sister named Bianchinetta. He was an apprentice in his father’s wool weaving business and studied sailing and mapmaking.

In his 20s, Columbus moved to Lisbon, Portugal, and later resettled in Spain, which remained his home base for the duration of his life.

Columbus first went to sea as a teenager, participating in several trading voyages in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. One such voyage, to the island of Khios, in modern-day Greece, brought him the closest he would ever come to Asia.

His first voyage into the Atlantic Ocean in 1476 nearly cost him his life, as the commercial fleet he was sailing with was attacked by French privateers off the coast of Portugal. His ship was burned, and Columbus had to swim to the Portuguese shore.

He made his way to Lisbon, where he eventually settled and married Filipa Perestrelo. The couple had one son, Diego, around 1480. His wife died when Diego was a young boy, and Columbus moved to Spain. He had a second son, Fernando, who was born out of wedlock in 1488 with Beatriz Enriquez de Arana.

After participating in several other expeditions to Africa, Columbus learned about the Atlantic currents that flow east and west from the Canary Islands.

The Asian islands near China and India were fabled for their spices and gold, making them an attractive destination for Europeans—but Muslim domination of the trade routes through the Middle East made travel eastward difficult.

Columbus devised a route to sail west across the Atlantic to reach Asia, believing it would be quicker and safer. He estimated the earth to be a sphere and the distance between the Canary Islands and Japan to be about 2,300 miles.

Many of Columbus’ contemporary nautical experts disagreed. They adhered to the (now known to be accurate) second-century BCE estimate of the Earth’s circumference at 25,000 miles, which made the actual distance between the Canary Islands and Japan about 12,200 statute miles. Despite their disagreement with Columbus on matters of distance, they concurred that a westward voyage from Europe would be an uninterrupted water route.

Columbus proposed a three-ship voyage of discovery across the Atlantic first to the Portuguese king, then to Genoa, and finally to Venice. He was rejected each time. In 1486, he went to the Spanish monarchy of Queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. Their focus was on a war with the Muslims, and their nautical experts were skeptical, so they initially rejected Columbus.

The idea, however, must have intrigued the monarchs, because they kept Columbus on a retainer. Columbus continued to lobby the royal court, and soon, the Spanish army captured the last Muslim stronghold in Granada in January 1492. Shortly thereafter, the monarchs agreed to finance his expedition.

In late August 1492, Columbus left Spain from the port of Palos de la Frontera. He was sailing with three ships: Columbus in the larger Santa Maria (a type of ship known as a carrack), with the Pinta and the Niña (both Portuguese-style caravels) alongside.

On October 12, 1492, after 36 days of sailing westward across the Atlantic, Columbus and several crewmen set foot on an island in present-day Bahamas, claiming it for Spain.

There, his crew encountered a timid but friendly group of natives who were open to trade with the sailors. They exchanged glass beads, cotton balls, parrots, and spears. The Europeans also noticed bits of gold the natives wore for adornment.

Columbus and his men continued their journey, visiting the islands of Cuba (which he thought was mainland China) and Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic, which Columbus thought might be Japan) and meeting with the leaders of the native population.

During this time, the Santa Maria was wrecked on a reef off the coast of Hispaniola. With the help of some islanders, Columbus’ men salvaged what they could and built the settlement Villa de la Navidad (“Christmas Town”) with lumber from the ship.

Thirty-nine men stayed behind to occupy the settlement. Convinced his exploration had reached Asia, he set sail for home with the two remaining ships. Returning to Spain in 1493, Columbus gave a glowing but somewhat exaggerated report and was warmly received by the royal court.

In 1493, Columbus took to the seas on his second expedition and explored more islands in the Caribbean Ocean. Upon arrival at Hispaniola, Columbus and his crew discovered the Navidad settlement had been destroyed with all the sailors massacred.

Spurning the wishes of the local queen, Columbus established a forced labor policy upon the native population to rebuild the settlement and explore for gold, believing it would be profitable. His efforts produced small amounts of gold and great hatred among the native population.

Before returning to Spain, Columbus left his brothers Bartholomew and Giacomo to govern the settlement on Hispaniola and sailed briefly around the larger Caribbean islands, further convincing himself he had discovered the outer islands of China.

It wasn’t until his third voyage that Columbus actually reached the South American mainland, exploring the Orinoco River in present-day Venezuela. By this time, conditions at the Hispaniola settlement had deteriorated to the point of near-mutiny, with settlers claiming they had been misled by Columbus’ claims of riches and complaining about the poor management of his brothers.

The Spanish Crown sent a royal official who arrested Columbus and stripped him of his authority. He returned to Spain in chains to face the royal court. The charges were later dropped, but Columbus lost his titles as governor of the Indies and, for a time, much of the riches made during his voyages.

After convincing King Ferdinand that one more voyage would bring the abundant riches promised, Columbus went on his fourth and final voyage across the Atlantic Ocean in 1502. This time he traveled along the eastern coast of Central America in an unsuccessful search for a route to the Indian Ocean.

A storm wrecked one of his ships, stranding the captain and his sailors on the island of Cuba. During this time, local islanders, tired of the Spaniards’ poor treatment and obsession with gold, refused to give them food.

In a spark of inspiration, Columbus consulted an almanac and devised a plan to “punish” the islanders by taking away the moon. On February 29, 1504, a lunar eclipse alarmed the natives enough to re-establish trade with the Spaniards. A rescue party finally arrived, sent by the royal governor of Hispaniola in July, and Columbus and his men were taken back to Spain in November 1504.

In the two remaining years of his life, Columbus struggled to recover his reputation. Although he did regain some of his riches in May 1505, his titles were never returned.

Columbus probably died of severe arthritis following an infection on May 20, 1506, in Valladolid, Spain. At the time of his death, he still believed he had discovered a shorter route to Asia.

There are questions about the location of his burial site. According to the BBC , Columbus’ remains moved at least three or four times over the course of 400 years—including from Valladolid to Seville, Spain, in 1509; then to Santo Domingo, in what is now the Dominican Republic, in 1537; then to Havana, Cuba, in 1795; and back to Seville in 1898. As a result, Seville and Santo Domingo have both laid claim to being Columbus’ true burial site. It is also possible his bones were mixed up with another person’s amid all of their travels.

In May 2014, Columbus made headlines as news broke that a team of archaeologists might have found the Santa Maria off the north coast of Haiti. Barry Clifford, the leader of this expedition, told the Independent newspaper that “all geographical, underwater topography and archaeological evidence strongly suggests this wreck is Columbus’ famous flagship the Santa Maria.”

After a thorough investigation by the U.N. agency UNESCO, it was determined the wreck dates from a later period and was located too far from shore to be the famed ship.

Columbus has been credited for opening up the Americas to European colonization—as well as blamed for the destruction of the native peoples of the islands he explored. Ultimately, he failed to find that what he set out for: a new route to Asia and the riches it promised.

In what is known as the Columbian Exchange, Columbus’ expeditions set in motion the widespread transfer of people, plants, animals, diseases, and cultures that greatly affected nearly every society on the planet.

The horse from Europe allowed Native American tribes in the Great Plains of North America to shift from a nomadic to a hunting lifestyle. Wheat from the Old World fast became a main food source for people in the Americas. Coffee from Africa and sugar cane from Asia became major cash crops for Latin American countries. And foods from the Americas, such as potatoes, tomatoes and corn, became staples for Europeans and helped increase their populations.

The Columbian Exchange also brought new diseases to both hemispheres, though the effects were greatest in the Americas. Smallpox from the Old World killed millions, decimating the Native American populations to mere fractions of their original numbers. This more than any other factor allowed for European domination of the Americas.

The overwhelming benefits of the Columbian Exchange went to the Europeans initially and eventually to the rest of the world. The Americas were forever altered, and the once vibrant cultures of the Indigenous civilizations were changed and lost, denying the world any complete understanding of their existence.

As more Italians began to immigrate to the United States and settle in major cities during the 19 th century, they were subject to religious and ethnic discrimination. This included a mass lynching of 11 Sicilian immigrants in 1891 in New Orleans.

Just one year after this horrific event, President Benjamin Harrison called for the first national observance of Columbus Day on October 12, 1892, to mark the 400 th anniversary of his arrival in the Americas. Italian-Americans saw this honorary act for Columbus as a way of gaining acceptance.

Colorado became the first state to officially observe Columbus Day in 1906 and, within five years, 14 other states followed. Thanks to a joint resolution of Congress, the day officially became a federal holiday in 1934 during the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt . In 1970, Congress declared the holiday would fall on the second Monday in October each year.

But as Columbus’ legacy—specifically, his exploration’s impacts on Indigenous civilizations—began to draw more criticism, more people chose not to take part. As of 2023, approximately 29 states no longer celebrate Columbus Day , and around 195 cities have renamed it or replaced with the alternative Indigenous Peoples Day. The latter isn’t an official holiday, but the federal government recognized its observance in 2022 and 2023. President Joe Biden called it “a day in honor of our diverse history and the Indigenous peoples who contribute to shaping this nation.”

One of the most notable cities to move away from celebrating Columbus Day in recent years is the state capital of Columbus, Ohio, which is named after the explorer. In 2018, Mayor Andrew Ginther announced the city would remain open on Columbus Day and instead celebrate a holiday on Veterans Day. In July 2020, the city also removed a 20-plus-foot metal statue of Columbus from the front of City Hall.

• I went to sea from the most tender age and have continued in a sea life to this day. Whoever gives himself up to this art wants to know the secrets of Nature here below. It is more than forty years that I have been thus engaged. Wherever any one has sailed, there I have sailed.
• Speaking of myself, little profit had I won from twenty years of service, during which I have served with so great labors and perils, for today I have no roof over my head in Castile; if I wish to sleep or eat, I have no place to which to go, save an inn or tavern, and most often, I lack the wherewithal to pay the score.
• They say that there is in that land an infinite amount of gold; and that the people wear corals on their heads and very large bracelets of coral on their feet and arms; and that with coral they adorn and inlay chairs and chests and tables.
• This island and all the others are very fertile to a limitless degree, and this island is extremely so. In it there are many harbors on the coast of the sea, beyond comparison with others that I know in Christendom, and many rivers, good and large, which is marvelous.
• Our Almighty God has shown me the highest favor, which, since David, he has not shown to anybody.
• Already the road is opened to gold and pearls, and it may surely be hoped that precious stones, spices, and a thousand other things, will also be found.
• I have now seen so much irregularity, that I have come to another conclusion respecting the earth, namely, that it is not round as they describe, but of the form of a pear.
• In all the countries visited by your Highnesses’ ships, I have caused a high cross to be fixed upon every headland and have proclaimed, to every nation that I have discovered, the lofty estate of your Highnesses and of your court in Spain.
• I ought to be judged as a captain sent from Spain to the Indies, to conquer a nation numerous and warlike, with customs and religions altogether different to ours.

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The Fourth Voyage of Christopher Columbus

The Famous Explorer's Final Voyage to the New World

• History Before Columbus
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Caribbean History
• Central American History
• South American History
• Mexican History
• American History
• African American History
• African History
• Ancient History and Culture
• Asian History
• European History
• Medieval & Renaissance History
• Military History
• The 20th Century
• Women's History

Before the Journey

• Hispaniola & the Hurricane

Across the Caribbean

Native encounters, central america to jamaica, a year on jamaica, importance of the fourth voyage.

• Ph.D., Spanish, Ohio State University
• M.A., Spanish, University of Montana
• B.A., Spanish, Penn State University

On May 11, 1502, Christopher Columbus set out on his fourth and final voyage to the New World with a fleet of four ships. His mission was to explore uncharted areas to the west of the Caribbean in hopes of finding a passage to the Orient. While Columbus did explore parts of southern Central America, his ships disintegrated during the voyage, leaving Columbus and his men stranded for nearly a year.

Much had happened since Columbus’ daring 1492 voyage of discovery . After that historic trip, Columbus was sent back to the New World to establish a colony. While a gifted sailor, Columbus was a terrible administrator, and the colony he founded on Hispaniola turned against him. After his third trip , ​Columbus was arrested and sent back to Spain in chains. Although he was quickly freed by the king and queen, his reputation was in shambles.

At 51, Columbus was increasingly being viewed as an eccentric by the members of the royal court, perhaps due to his belief that when Spain united the world under Christianity (which they would quickly accomplish with gold and wealth from the New World) that the world would end. He also tended to dress like a simple barefoot friar, rather than the wealthy man he had become.

Even so, the crown agreed to finance one last voyage of discovery. With royal backing, Columbus soon found four seaworthy vessels: the Capitana , Gallega , Vizcaína , and Santiago de Palos . His brothers, Diego and Bartholomew, and his son Fernando signed on as crew, as did some veterans of his earlier voyages.

Hispaniola & the Hurricane

Columbus was not welcome when he returned to the island of Hispaniola. Too many settlers remembered his cruel and ineffective administration . Nevertheless, after first visiting Martinique and Puerto Rico, he made Hispaniola his destination because had hopes of being able to swap the Santiago de Palos for a quicker ship while there. As he awaited an answer, Columbus realized a storm was approaching and sent word to the current governor, Nicolás de Ovando, that he should consider delaying the fleet that was set to depart for Spain.

Governor Ovando, resenting the interference, forced Columbus to anchor his ships in a nearby estuary. Ignoring the explorer's advice, he sent the fleet of 28 ships to Spain. A tremendous hurricane sank 24 of them: three returned and only one (Ironically, the one containing Columbus’ personal effects that he'd wished to send to Spain) arrived safely. Columbus’ own ships, all badly battered, nevertheless remained afloat.

After the hurricane passed, Columbus’ small fleet set out in search of a passage west, however, the storms did not abate and the journey became a living hell. The ships, already damaged by the forces of the hurricane, suffered substantially more abuse. Eventually, Columbus and his ships reached Central America, anchoring off the coast of Honduras on an island that many believe to be Guanaja, where they made what repairs they could and took on supplies.

While exploring Central America, Columbus had an encounter many consider to be the first with one of the major inland civilizations. Columbus’ fleet came in contact with a trading vessel, a very long, wide canoe full of goods and traders believed to be Mayan from the Yucatan. The traders carried copper tools and weapons, swords made of wood and flint, textiles, and a beerlike beverage made from fermented corn. Columbus, oddly enough, decided not to investigate the interesting trading civilization, and instead of turning north when he reached Central America, he went south.

Columbus continued exploring to the south along the coasts of present-day Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. While there, Columbus and his crew traded for food and gold whenever possible. They encountered several native cultures and observed stone structures as well as maize being cultivated on terraces.

By early 1503, the structure of the ships began to fail. In addition to the storm damage the vessels had endured, it was discovered they were also infested with termites. Columbus reluctantly set sail for Santo Domingo looking for aid—but the ships only made it as far as Santa Gloria (St. Ann’s Bay), Jamaica before they were incapacitated.

Columbus and his men did what they could, breaking the ships apart to make shelters and fortifications. They formed a relationship with the local natives who brought them food. Columbus was able to get word to Ovando of his predicament, but Ovando had neither the resources nor the inclination to help. Columbus and his men languished on Jamaica for a year, surviving storms, mutinies, and an uneasy peace with the natives. (With the help of one of his books, Columbus was able to impress the natives by correctly predicting an eclipse .)

In June 1504, two ships finally arrived to retrieve Columbus and his crew. Columbus returned to Spain only to learn that his beloved Queen Isabella was dying. Without her support, he would never again return to the New World.

Columbus’ final voyage is remarkable primarily for new exploration, mostly along the coast of Central America. It's also of interest to historians, who value the descriptions of the native cultures encountered by Columbus’ small fleet, particularly those sections concerning the Mayan traders. Some of the fourth voyage crew would go on to greater things: Cabin boy Antonio de Alaminos eventually piloted and explored much of the western Caribbean. Columbus’ son Fernando wrote a biography of his famous father.

Still, for the most part, the fourth voyage was a failure by almost any standard. Many of Columbus’ men died, his ships were lost, and no passage to the west was ever found. Columbus never sailed again and when he died in 1506, he was convinced that he'd found Asia—even if most of Europe already accepted the fact that the Americas were an unknown “New World." That said, the fourth voyage showcased more profoundly than any other Columbus’ sailing skills, his fortitude, and his resilience—the very attributes that allowed him to journey to the Americas in the first place.

• Thomas, Hugh. "Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan." Random House. New York. 2005.
• Biography of Christopher Columbus
• The Third Voyage of Christopher Columbus
• Biography of Christopher Columbus, Italian Explorer
• 10 Facts About Christopher Columbus
• The Truth About Christopher Columbus
• The Second Voyage of Christopher Columbus
• Where Are the Remains of Christopher Columbus?
• The First New World Voyage of Christopher Columbus (1492)
• Biography of Juan Ponce de León, Conquistador
• Amerigo Vespucci, Explorer and Navigator
• Amerigo Vespucci, Italian Explorer and Cartographer
• Biography and Legacy of Ferdinand Magellan
• Biography of Ferdinand Magellan, Explorer Circumnavigated the Earth
• La Navidad: First European Settlement in the Americas
• A Timeline of North American Exploration: 1492–1585

Columbus’s Letter on the First Voyage: Analysis

This essay is about Christopher Columbus’ letter in which he reports on his first voyage. Here, you’ll find “Letter from the New Land” summary and analysis.

Introduction

Letter of christopher columbus: summary, analysis of columbus’s letter on the first voyage.

Christopher Columbus is arguably the world’s most renowned explorer. His discovery of the New World was of epic significance to the European nations. In his voyages, Columbus wrote letters detailing his discoveries and other items of interest. In this paper, I shall review a letter written by Columbus on his return journey from his first voyage. By reviewing this letter, I shall highlight Columbus’s intentions, his attitudes, and the various arguments that he raises in the letter. His prospective audience shall also be deduced from the contents of the letter.

The main purpose of this letter by Columbus is to shed light on discoveries in the New World. It is possible that by outlining the successes of his voyage, Columbus aims to encourage future expeditions to the New World as well as encourage the ruling class in Spain to finance future voyages. The voyage is deemed to be a great success and Columbus records that he has found many islands with a significant population. More importantly, Columbus aims to demonstrate that he has taken possession of these new lands for his King. This is highlighted by the subsequent renaming of various islands. Columbus also intends to reassure all that the lands are fertile and rich with gold.

Columbus argues that the inhabitants of the islands that he comes across are inherently timid people. To support his claims, he illustrates how fathers flee without waiting for their sons when Columbus’s scouts appear in the village. This is despite Columbus and his team showing nothing but hospitality to the natives. In addition to this, Columbus observes that his crew members and other sailors take advantage of the natives’ naivety and kind-heartedness. In his opinion this taking advantage is wrong and he goes on to forbid his men from dealing unfairly with the natives.

While the people of the islands are intelligent and have knowledge of weapons, Columbus proposes that they would be no match for his men whom he has left at a fort. While the king of the land is an agreeable character and indeed treats him as a brother, Columbus argues that even if the king changes his attitude and decides to attack the fort, the arms and artillery held by his men will ensure their safety. Furthermore, Columbus restates that the people are the timidest in the world and his few men could easily destroy the whole land if they so wished.

This letter is addressed to the monarchs in Spain. The chief recipient of this letter is probably the King himself who is throughout the letter referred to as “his highness”. Columbus’s voyage had been financed by the monarchy and as such he was enthusiastic to report his findings. From the statements made by Columbus, it can safely be assumed that there were other voyages to the Indies before his. These voyages brought home tales of violent tribes and inhospitable lands. Columbus refutes these claims and says that his voyage was a victory. He also insists that the stories told about the lands were baseless and mostly lies.

Some of Columbus’s ideologies and attitudes can be deduced from the letter. For example, it can be observed that Columbus was a staunch believer of the Christian faith. He gives thanks to the Lord for a successful voyage. He also names one of the islands for his Lord and Savior. Throughout his expedition, Columbus seeks to convert the natives to his Christian faith demonstrating that he regards the natives’ religion as inferior and based on error.

This paper set out to analyze the letter by Columbus To discover Columbus’s intentions in drafting the letter. It has been identified from the various arguments that the letter was mainly aimed at highlighting the success of his voyage to the new world. Columbus envisions another voyage and asserts that the newfound land contains treasures for Spain and a lot of people to be converted to the holy faith of Christianity.

Columbus, C. (2019). Select Letters of Christopher Columbus: With Other Original Documents, Relating to His Four Voyages . Wentworth Press.

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Columbus’ Voyages and Legacy

How it works

Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer who many people today claimed he had “discovered” the americas. But he indeed was not the first person to step foot on these lands, and instead of being a hero, became partially blamed for opening up the americas to the Europeans.

Christopher Columbus was born October 31, 1451 in Genoa Italy. During his early teen years, he got his first job on a merchant ship, where he got the idea of becoming an explorer. Towards the end of the 15th century, when it was nearly impossible to reach Asia by land, many Portugal explorers would set sail, taking a long, hard route.

But Columbus thought of an easier route to take. He thought sailing west across the Atlantic instead of around Africa, would be much more proficient, and easier to reach Asia. After presenting his idea to others, and being rejected multiple times, in 1491, he presented his idea to the Spanish monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand. Isabella and Ferdinand agreed to support his expedition, leaving Columbus to sign a contract allowing him to keep 10% of whatever riches he found, along with a noble title and govenship of any land he encounters. Then on August 3, 1492, Columbus and his crew set sail to Asia. Columbus finally reaches what he thought was Asia but what was actually one of the Bahamian islands, on October 12. When first reaching the island, Columbus and his crew met a group of native who were open to trade. They exchanged cotton balls, parrots, glass beads, and spears. Columbus then continued his journey across the different islands meeting with leaders of different native populations. Columbus spent months looking for any sort of treasures he could find, but returned to Spain with almost nothing. He made a second voyage in September of 1493, forcing a forced labor policy over the native populations to help him explore for gold. His actions did cause him to produce some gold, but also caused problems between the population. Before his return to Spain, Columbus left his two brothers to govern the settlement, while he himself was convinced he discovered the outer edges of China. Columbus then returned with native slaves for Queen Isabella, trying to please her from his expedition. Isabella, who was mildly against the idea of slavery, was in fact furious with what Columbus had brought back, and claimed that these people were Spanish subjects who could not be enslaved. So, Columbus returned yet a third time in May 1498, to return the Spanish subjects. Once returning, he discovered the settling colonist staged a rebellion against Columbus’s brothers. Due to these terrible conditions, and of how poorly Columbus treated these native people, a Spanish royal official arrested Columbus, and stripped him of his noble authority, leading Columbus to return to Spain in chains. By 1506, most of the significant charges were dropped from his previous actions, and Columbus convinced the king and queen to sponsor one more trip across the Atlantic. On his final destination, he made it to panama, where there he faces an attack from hostile natives. Once again, he returned to Spain empty handed. Columbus spent the last years of his life trying to regain his noble title, and he died on May 20, 1506, due to severe arthritis, still believing he had discovered a shorter and easier route to Asia.

So, although Columbus did not “discover” the Americas, he did leave a very important legacy. His journey across the Atlantic caused many more centuries filled with exploration of the americas. But he also led many consequences, some good, some bad, with the land he conquered. Columbus and his crew brought many diseases, plants, animals and cultural traits to the native population, which over time, changed their entire environment. So, since Columbus was not the first person to discover America, and we now know that there were many generations of people there before him, many people do not think he did anything to impact our present day culture. But Columbus did in fact, open a new exploration of the new world, and open and new form of trade between Europeans and the Americans.

Many still argue today whether they believe Columbus should be known as a villain or a hero. But present day life without Columbus’s hope in finding Asia, and his mistake in actually finding the americas, impacts us more than many think. I personally think that without Columbus’s actions, and his many attempts to reach Asia, America and Europe would not have formed their new method of trade, which resulted in many new goods for our country, and which possibly could have led to many new present day inventions. Many animals and even diseases were exported by the Europeans to America. Animals such as horses, cattle, sheep, goats, chicken, large dogs were all exported from Columbus and his crew, which we as Americans, developed into our daily life over time. Even diseases like smallpox, influenza, measles, and even chicken pox, were all brought to us due to Columbus making his voyage. So, without Columbus mistaking America for Asia, we might not have had any of the present day animals, diseases, and maybe even tools, or inventions that we have today. Columbus did do a lot to help develop our country over time, and life today would truly be different without him, and his discovery.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — Exploration — Christopher Columbus Accomplishment

Christopher Columbus Accomplishment

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The Life of Christopher Columbus Essay (Biography)

Historians often argue about the personal history of Christopher Columbus and several misconceptions are surrounding him and his voyages. His exact routes across different places and the places where he made his landings are a matter of hectic debates in coming to concrete conclusions about the specific details of his expeditions. Most historians are however in consensus about his landmark achievements and the pivotal role he played in connecting the old worlds of Africa, Asia, and Europe and the new world comprising of the Americas and its peripheral islands. Columbus is most revered for having found the routes that enabled connectivity between the new and old worlds that had till then hardly known about each other. The new routes discovered by him later became infamous on account of the destructive impacts they had on the explorers who ventured out in later years as also on millions of people who were inhabitants of the Americas. He is also held responsible for the proliferation and expansion of the slave trade in later years.

Most historians agree that Columbus was born in 1451 in Genoa, a city in Italy. Since his young days he had an earnest desire in sailing and was forever on the lookout to know of the adventurous explorations of the likes of Marco Polo who had traveled to faraway places such as Asia and returned with gold, silk and spices in expanding the potential for business amongst European traders. He was much fascinated with Marco Polo who had managed to travel across Europe to India in reaching the far East, and it was in this context that the idea was born in him to discover a shorter and faster route to Asia by traveling towards the west, so as to gain popularity and to be in the good books of the monarchs in Europe. It was believed during the period that the world was flat and Columbus took on himself the task of proving this belief to be wrong. However, most sailors of that period had the experience of concluding that the world was not flat but round. During the time, makers of maps and navigators would argue about the actual size of Earth, and it was in this context that Columbus was proved to be wrong since he was always trying to portray the world as being much smaller than what other navigators believed it to be. Because of such unreasonable logic being given by Columbus, most of his contemporaries had valid doubts about his ability to make his journey to Asia by traveling towards the west. They had the idea that such a journey would just be too long and very difficult to travel across the massive span of the ocean that is now called the Atlantic Ocean. Moreover, most people did not incline that it was the Americas that existed between Europe and Asia if one traveled westwards.

It was Ferdinand and Isabella, the King and Queen of Spain respectively, who consented to provide finance to Columbus for his travels to the faraway places. This was primarily because the trade and business in Spain had started to suffer severe setbacks and there was hope in the event of Columbus discovering new routes and new lands, which would imply that Spain would get the power to control such new trade routes to the Far East in exploiting the immense gains to be achieved from such ventures. Columbus made his preparations and started his voyage in the year 1492. After having sailed across the sea for about ten weeks, he made his landfall in the islands of the Bahamas. Some historians believe that he first landed in San Salvador, but this aspect has been disputed because of the doubt over the authenticity of such claims. After having landed in Sal Salvador, Columbus went on to meet the locals, most probably the Tainos, and believed the place to be India and started to call the natives Indians. Upon traveling to the other islands that included Cuba and Hispaniola, he wrongly thought he had landed in China and Japan.

Columbus is known to have undertaken four major voyages and during such expeditions, he and his crew are known to have ill-treated the natives they encountered in the places where they landed and reconnoitered for trade purposes. Such natives were often forced into slavery; their valuables and food were taken away and rampant incidents of rape and killings were the order by his people. This was unfortunately the usual practice amongst explorers and their teams during that period. To gain physical and political control and to establish supremacy over such lands on behalf of another country at a distance of thousands of miles away, it was a normal practice during those days to enslave the local inhabitants as also to convert them. This practice was prevalent during the time of Columbus and continued for quite some time after him. But it is well known that the discovery by Columbus of the Caribbean islands was more like an unintentional discovery and by accident than by design since he was seeking to find the Indies with East Asia mainland in his mind in pursuance of his prime objective of finding avenues for lucrative trading in spices and other items from there, for the benefit of the Spanish rulers. He had equally mistaken the Caribbean islands for the East Indies and started to call the inhabitants Indians. In that context, this was the start of a phase that signaled the Spanish colonization in the region since these small settlements would later form the basis in marking the initial phase of the Spanish Empire. Because of such achievements, Columbus can claim credit for making important landmarks for the Spanish Empire.

Having sailed past Cuba during his trip, Columbus had a very difficult time in the open seas till the time he reached the Central Americas. Extreme adversities in the form of violent storms alongside the coasts took their toll on his men and him. He was extremely sick and down with rheumatism fever, had reduced eyesight, and was forced to be in bed for most of the time. Having failed to find a route to mainland Asia, Columbus was in the thought process of taking his next steps. While in Panama, Columbus called off the trip and started to sail back for Spain in December 1502. All his ships were not worthy enough to travel the entire distance and all his 130 men had to be accommodated in one ship, but that too did not prove to be seaworthy to travel the entire distance and he had to stop short at Jamaica. Columbus and his men were marooned there for a full year and he had a difficult time controlling his men who had by this time mutinied. Another problem faced by him was that the locals got tired of him and stopped supplying food which proved very dangerous in continuing the stay in Jamaica. But Columbus used a very ingenious trick against the locals by making use of his astrological knowledge. He knew that the lunar eclipse was due and he threatened them that he would make the moon disappear if they did not mend their ways. With the coming of the lunar eclipse and the disappearance of the moon, the islanders were alarmed and agreed to start their trade with the Spaniards again. In due course, Columbus managed to get another ship and they reached Spain on November 7, 1504.

When Columbus reached Spain, Queen Isabella was very ill and died within a few days of his arrival. Columbus too was very weak by now after having suffered from many diseases during his voyages. He spent several months trying to recover from the illness and during the one and a half years that he survived after he arrived in Spain, Columbus tried to regain his lost titles of viceroy and governor that he had lost consequent to his failure in finding a profitable route to mainland Asia. He petitioned the royalty and wrote several letters and requested influential associates to canvass on his behalf. Ultimately the then King Ferdinand granted him an audience in May 1505 and did not return his titles, but permission was given for arbitration into his financial claims over his share from the gains arising due to his voyages to the Indies. Finally, he did get a 2% share from the financial gains accrued from the Indies which was considered to be a sizable financial amount. Columbus already had a noble status and a coat of arms which gave him and his family a status befitting the richest of nobilities in Spain. Hence although Columbus did not make it to Asia in the end he got some justice and a suitable reward befitting the far-reaching achievements by way of his voyages to the Americas.

In due course, Columbus became very ill and shifted to the city of Valladolid where he breathed his last on May 20, 1506. His body was first buried at Valladolid, but in 1509 his son Diego shifted his remains in the Las Cuevas Monastry in Sevilla. There is a raging controversy to this day about the exact location of the place where his remains are. They are said to have been shifted to the Americas sometime in the middle of the 16 th century. After being shifted to Santo Domingo and then to Havana in Cuba, his remains are said to have again been transferred to Spain where they are claimed to be interred in Sevilla. There is no doubt that there were very significant changes that happened due to the voyages of Columbus. He did fail to find a new route to mainland Asia, but he enabled the knowledge of the Americas and the Western Hemisphere for the Europeans, which in turn during history, set the trend for a host of developments that altered world history for the betterment of mankind on a global scale.

• Christopher Columbus Biography.
• Columbus Day.
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• Peter Sis, Follow the Dream: The story of Christopher Columbus, 2003, Knopf Books for Young Readers
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• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The Life of Christopher Columbus." June 2, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-life-of-christopher-columbus/.

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