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Water Roadmap for Travel & Tourism

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Report details

The purpose  of this Water Roadmap report from WTTC and Accenture is to emphasise water  scarcity and resilience as two significant global challenges and to highlight  the role the Travel & Tourism sector can play in responding to the water  crisis.

The report’s  features include:

·          Unique data on Travel & Tourism’s water  use, water intensity and water stress at a global and regional level between  2010 and 2021.

·          An explanation of water-related risks and  challenges, and the need to make changes to meet the water-related targets of  UN SDG (Sustainable Development Goal) 6.

·          A Water Management Action Framework, outlining  four key steps to guide Travel & Tourism businesses on reducing their  water footprint and building resilience to water-related risks.

·          Examples of best practice initiatives  undertaken by Travel & Tourism businesses.

·          The role that digital technologies can play in  providing solutions to water challenges.

·          A call to action to Travel & Tourism  businesses to set water targets, prioritise and allocate resources for water  reduction and risk mitigation initiatives, foster collaboration, and monitor  and report progress.

·          A call to action for the public sector, including  governments, regulators, water management agencies and basin authorities, to  encourage and facilitate collective action.

·          Web Links to additional resources.

  Our unique data  in this report is a result of the partnership between WTTC and the Ministry  of Tourism of Saudi Arabia, with support from Oxford Economics.

The specific  methodology for researching the data on water use, intensity and stress is  explained in Appendix A within the report. However, this  forms just one part of our broader research into, and data analysis of, the environmental  and social impact of Travel & Tourism.

To read our report on the  Environmental Impact of Global Tourism, click here . For further details on the Methodology for that report,  see the Travel  & Tourism Environmental & Social Impact Methodology . ‍

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Area of action

Hospitality can play an important role in managing water consumption and contributing towards sustainable and secure water resources in their local communities.

leading hotel companies

In our water working group.

hotels using our Hotel

Water measurement initiative, water scarcity and the hospitality industry.

Water scarcity affects more than 40 per cent of the global population and is projected to rise. 1 Water is now such a critical issue that it is ranked in the top five global risks. 2 A quarter of the world’s population face “extremely high” levels of water stress, and this leaves them highly vulnerable to the impact of drought or increases in water use. 3

A hotel can use an average of 1,500 litres per room per day which can vastly exceed that of local populations in water-scarce destinations. 4 In some locations, tourism uses over eight times more water per person on average than the local population. 5 Even hotels located in regions with plenty of water could be having an impact if they are sourcing products or services from water-scarce locations.

In recent years, we have seen major cities from Cape Town to Sao Paolo and Chennai needing to ration water to protect their scarce resources. This is not only having a dramatic effect on the local populations, but also on local economies and businesses – including the hotel industry. For example, the water crisis in Cape Town in 2018 led to up to a $65 million shortfall in the region’s hospitality industry. 6

Water scarcity is a global issue and the industry has a role in managing its water consumption to protect the communities in which they operate and the future of their businesses.

We support the industry to embed water stewardship programmes to address water scarcity, improve water-use efficiency and reduce the number of people affected by lack of water.

Hotel water measurement initiative (hwmi), this free tool was created to help the industry to understand and benchmark their water usage. use the tool to calculate the water usage of hotel stays and meetings in your hotel properties. .

Enabling every hotel to work towards a net positive impact, no matter their starting point.

Destination water risk index (dwri), providing evidence and guidance for hotel companies, developers and their stakeholders to prioritise water stewardship in investment, development and renovation decisions, as well as hotel management in high-risk destinations..

Background to our work on water stewardship

We carried out research to highlight potential water-related risks faced by the tourism and hotel industry and suggested mitigation measures. This led to a greater understanding and commitment from the industry for collective action to measure, report on and reduce water consumption.

We followed this with the Destination Water Risk Index , comparing water stress with hotel growth. This research found that countries forecast with the highest water stress in the coming years are also among those with the greatest tourism growth, which highlighted the need for the industry to prioritise action in these regions.

What we are doing

Convening the industry.

• Our water working group brings our members together to share expertise and identify ways to address water scarcity.

Practical action

• We have developed a selection of free practical tools, research and resources to enable every hotel to implement effective water stewardship strategies.
• Our tools include our Hotel Water Measurement Initiative for effective monitoring and consistent reporting of water consumption across the industry.

Building a movement

• We engage with the wider industry to raise awareness of the risk of water scarcity and share practical actions to improve water consumption.
• We are promoting the benefits of water efficiency as part of sustainable building design to hotel investors, owners and operators to increase collaboration among stakeholders during hotel construction and refurbishment.

Global partnerships for sustainable development

• We are worked with IFC – part of the World Bank – on the business case for sustainable building design and the need for investment in sustainable hotel refurbishments.
• The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) translated our HWMI tool into Georgian and Azerbaijani and are using it to train hotels in those countries as part of their water-saving training programme.
• Together with Greenview, STR and Ecolab, we developed the Destination Water Risk Index , which now includes 379 destinations across 63 countries, and incorporates nine risk metrics.

Water stewardship resources

View our resources index.

We have free tools and resources to enable every hotel to implement effective water stewardship strategies.

Guide to our resources

Discover how to use our resources for support with awareness, implementation and best practice examples.

Partner with us

We work with hospitality companies, governmental institutions, non-profits and other industries to encourage water stewardship across the global hospitality sector.

• United Nations, Sustainable Development Goals, SDG 6, available from  www.un.org
• World Economic Forum (2020), The Global Risks Report 2020, available from  www.weforum.org
• World Resources Institute (2019), 17 Countries, Home to One-Quarter of the World’s Population, Face Extremely High Water Stress, available from  www.wri.org
• Sustainable Hospitality Alliance (2018), Water Stewardship for Hotel Companies, available from www.sustainablehosptalityalliance.org
• IOL (2018), Water crisis leaves R1bn hole in tourism coffers, available from   www.iol.co.za

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UN Tourism | Bringing the world closer

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Water Management

Water is a key resource in tourism and services to tourists are heavily dependent on it. Water can become a constraint to sustainable development, a limit on tourist activities and an issue of conflict with local residents over allocation and pricing, in particular when water is a scarce resource. While new innovative water supplies can be difficult to obtain and costly (e.g. import, desalinization), conservation is one means to reduce or mitigate demand (e.g. recycling waste or grey water).  For measuring water availability and water conservation a variety of indicators exist, ranging, inter alia, from water use per capita per tourist to water saving and recycled waste and grey water, as well as pricing. In addition to these aspects, measuring the quality of drinking water and sea water are also aspects of interest for tourism and require relevant attention by destinations.  However, monitoring in the area of water management, especially in water scarce areas, keep being a major challenge for many destinations.

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Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all

By Helen Jennings, Tourism Concern

“Tourism can play a critical role in achieving water access and security, as well as hygiene and sanitation for all. The efficient use of water in the tourism sector, coupled with appropriate safety measures, wastewater management, pollution control and technology efficiency can be key to safeguarding our most precious resource”. (UNWTO 2015, Goal 6) This very idealistic statement by the World Tourism Organization emphasises what could be the case. However, tourists in many areas actually contribute to water scarcity and inequity, through the appropriation of public water supplies, over exploitation of aquifers, lowering of groundwater tables, and contamination of freshwater by saltwater and sewage. This leads to conflict and resentment among local people, and threatens the sustainability of tourism, which in turn further damages the economy of the places being visited. To be sustainable, tourism to countries or areas with water supply problems needs to be carefully managed in a way that improves local conditions rather than adds to the problems.

Introduction

Ensuring availability and access to water for all The right to water constitutes one of the most fundamental human rights. For many communities, particularly those living in the Global South, this right is being compromised by tourism development. The inequities of water access and availability between resorts, large hotels and golf courses on the one hand, and local communities and small-scale tourism entrepreneurs on the other, are starkly played out in holiday destinations in some of the world’s poorest countries. While hotels ensure their guests can have several showers a day, swimming pools, a round of golf and lush gardens, neighbouring households, small businesses and agricultural producers can regularly endure severe water scarcity. As long as hotels are prioritised over communities, conflict and resentment will grow, so undermining the potential for tourism to contribute to sustainable development. Hotel development needs to be carefully regulated to ensure that hotels and resorts do not syphon off – quite literally – much needed water from local communities. Developments in places like Bali, Goa, Zanzibar and the Gambia have led to the privatisation of water supplies, placing poorer sections of the communities in serious health risk, not to mention financial distress. Scarcity of water is rarely about its complete absence; it is much more often about its misappropriation.

Inequalities in water access: Nungwi, Zanzibar

Tourism is a major contributor to Zanzibar’s economy, yet the benefits have not been felt by all. Almost half the population remain in poverty. According to the British Department for International Development (DFID), in 2011 just half of the rural residents had access to a water source. Women in particular spend significant amounts of time fetching water, which diverts them from other income-generating activities, and means that women face the most immediate problems when water is scarce. In the popular resort areas of Nungwi there are stark inequalities between water access for local communities and the growing number of hotels. On average, households in the village consume 93.2 litres of water per day, whereas the average consumption per room per day in a hotel is 3,195 litres. Wall to wall guesthouses surround the village of Nungwi. Water supply here is hugely problematic: local inhabitants report that the well has become too saline for use. The one remaining public borehole and pump are inadequate, which means that villagers have to obtain water from a town 20 km away. Meanwhile, four of the larger hotels have sunk their own boreholes. This inequity between hotels and local residents has resulted in conflict, with hotel water pipelines being cut by residents, which has then resulted in hotels hiring guards to protect them.

Lorna Slade (2012)

Sustainable management Part of any new regulatory framework must be recommendations concerning sustainability of water supply and sanitation. This cannot be left to hotels themselves, or to developers, for such concerns do not immediately rise to the top of their list of priorities. Sustainability entails costs, and these need to be borne by everyone in a fair way. Government has to mediate on behalf of its citizens to ensure that this is achieved. Education is likely to play a large part in raising awareness of sustainability, and this will apply to schools, businesses, planners and architects, and property developers. Engineers will need to be trained and employed to ensure that good systems are put in place, maintained and improved. The tourist industry will have to play its part; it must become part of the solution rather than a large part of the problem.

Goa is an extremely popular destination in India with its sandy beaches and natural beauty, but it has become a victim of its own popularity and is facing huge water challenges as a result of poor management. These issues are threatening the sustainability of Goa as a tourist destination as well as the well-being of the local communities. The state government’s drive towards high-end tourism, characterised by its five-star resorts with swimming pools and golf courses is seeing the increased privatisation of Goa’s coastline, placing an intense burden on the already strained freshwater resources and infrastructure. The problem is being further compounded by the widespread pollution of Goa’s rivers, groundwater and wells from untreated sewage and dumped waste to which the tourism sector is a significant contributor. The growing privatisation of water apparently remains outside of the law. Monitoring and enforcement of basic regulations is minimal owing to a lack of resources, political will and corruption. There is little incentive to do things well and few sanctions for doing things badly. In this political vacuum, the tourism industry is relatively unregulated, with the result that water problems are not being addressed and resolved. Anabel da Gama

There are examples of good practice. The American-owned Starwood Hotels group has committed to reducing water consumption by 20 percent by 2020. This hotel chain offered a five US dollar voucher to spend in any of their US based hotels, if guests did not have their rooms cleaned every day. These rewards have acted as an incentive, raised customer awareness, and helped to adjust perspectives, expectations and consumption. Another company, Soneva, who have hotels in Thailand and the Maldives, have stopped taking water from the public water supply and switched to 60 percent from rainwater collection or wells and 40 percent from desalination plants. (GreenHoteliers, 2013) Water needs to be on top of the agenda, not only regarding availability and access, but also in terms of the infrastructure and good governance vital to maintaining sustainability. Sanitation for all Good water supplies are also essential to sound sanitation. It is imperative that waste is disposed of safely and that water supplies are not contaminated in the process. Diseases like cholera and typhoid are endemic when this is not the case. These matters hit the headlines when natural disasters like earthquakes strike and destroy elements of the water infrastructure. Water contamination is a problem in many parts of the world. The improper disposal of sewage and dry waste, as well as increasing saltwater intrusion caused by groundwater over-extraction is contaminating groundwater and waterways, forcing communities to increase dependence on erratic public supplies or unregulated private vendors. The absence of monitoring here means there is limited knowledge of existing and future water availability. This is a massive problem that is posing risks to community health and well-being ( >> Goal 3 ), impeding socio-economic mobility, harming livelihoods, threatening food security and undermining the sustainability of the tourism sector itself.

Water problems in Alappuzha, India

Houseboat tourism is booming on the backwaters of Kerala. While this provides economic benefits for some, the livelihoods and drinking water access for many local communities are being severely threatened. Poorly regulated tourism is affecting water quality, eco-systems and traditional livelihoods. In the backwater area of Alappuzha, people’s entire way of life is intimately connected to the backwaters, which they rely upon for fishing, drinking, bathing, cooking, and other livelihood activities, such as rice farming. The livelihood of the people depends on the quality of water. Houseboats leak diesel and other pollutants directly into waterways. These petrochemicals harm and disrupt the ecosystems. Oil coats the fish, causing their death or migration to less polluted areas, and bird species decline. Very few households enjoy access to piped water, and those that do report it is erratic and inadequate. Many have no choice but to depend on contaminated sources. Paddy fields are directly irrigated by the backwaters, which mean that oil, sewage and rubbish from the houseboats can flow into these agricultural units. Workers are afraid to work on the land for fear for their health.

Tourism Concern

Major Challenges

Universal availability and access to pure water supplies for all is a human right. It should be enshrined as such in any government policies regarding water and sanitation. It should be the duty of all citizens and law enforcement agencies to maintain these rights to the utmost of their abilities.

Improvements will be gained where there is close collaboration between all users of water and a common sense of purpose regarding access, sustainability and conservation. Close monitoring and inspection regimes will be essential in this process, together with properly understood sanctions for violations of codes. A healthy tourist industry will be one that plays its part in supporting sound water policies across the globe. Tourists themselves should exercise sanctions regarding areas of the world in which water is not taken seriously for all. As citizens of the world we all share a moral imperative to support the human rights of others, in this case concerning access to water.

Aligning business practice with the human rights to water and sanitation

The Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) has laid down minimum requirements that any tourism business should aspire to reach in order to protect and sustain the world’s natural and cultural resources, whilst ensuring tourism meets its potential as a tool for poverty alleviation. The criteria include the provision that “the activities of the company do not jeopardize the provision of basic services, such as water, energy or sanitation to neighbouring communities”. Moreover, the Travellife Sustainability System, an international certification scheme for hotels and accommodation, is working to align their criteria with the GSTC, including with respect to water. Some tour operators now take direct action to provide water for neighbouring communities, and there are examples where hotels, guesthouses, or safari lodges have installed water tanks wells or boreholes for whole communities. Elsewhere, hotel groups have donated money to community trust funds.The CEO Water Mandate offers a range of free guidelines and assessment tools to foster responsible and effective business engagement with water policy at the local level. For example, it has published a “Guide to aligning business practice with the human rights to water and sanitation”. This will offer an operational framework for applying business and human rights principles to water

www.gstcouncil.org , http://travelifesystem.org , http://ceowatermandate.org

Tangible Ways Forward

Ensuring availability and access to water for all Good governance is key to this issue, including proper regulatory frameworks, monitoring and enforcement of existing regulations, adequate planning and accountability. As women bear the burdens of water scarcity, they need to be engaged fully in finding local solutions in a fair and democratic manner ( >> Goal 5 ). Water should be treated as a social and cultural good, and not primarily as an economic good. Privatisation of water supplies should be strongly opposed as being against public interests and good governance. Governments need to act strongly to improve equitable access to water and sanitation for all of their people and not just for some ( >> Goal 10 ). Tourist companies and tourists themselves need to see themselves as guardians of these rights in order to maintain pressure on government agencies and hotels to follow good practice ( >> Goal 16 Governance ). Sustainable management As before, there is a need for a comprehensive regulatory framework to establish sustainable management practice. The tourist industry itself should look to its practice in order to ensure its own sustainability. Education is needed at all levels to ensure a full understanding of issues raised by sustainability ( >> Goal 4 ). Tourists themselves can play a part in supporting efforts to change for the better, putting pressure on government agencies and tourist companies to play a responsible role (>> Goal 12). Effective planning regulations are essential. Sanitation for all There needs to be proper enforcement of strong regulations. Local communities need to be educated to play their part in local enforcement of standards. Use of the waterways needs to be properly regulated and monitored. The tourist industry can play an important, proactive part in helping to raise awareness and standards. Taxes raised from the industry should be used to gain improvements. Educational efforts could be targeted on women, children and marginalised groups – notably indigenous peoples – to ensure that they are fully involved in efforts to gain improvements. Role of governments Governments are obliged to respect, fulfil and protect the rights to water and sanitation of their citizens. This means taking active measures to extend these rights to all citizens and governments are obliged to protect water rights against abuses by corporate interests including those engaged in tourism – such as over extraction, appropriation and pollution of water resources. Water rights Water rights are frequently bound up with the ways in which people earn their livelihoods. Population growth, scientific progress and climate change ( >> Goal 13 ) are all having an effect on these often traditional ways of life. Yet it is important to treat people’s rights and customs with respect and to acknowledge their own expertise. If water rights are to be protected for all, the process should include everyone in the debate and the development of strategies for best ways forward – for only then can we be sure of proper implementation. Tour operators and hotel groups International tour operators and multinational hotel groups have a vested interest and responsibility to understand and address these issues and to influence local counterparts and authorities accordingly. The tourism sector can play a key role in capacity building, technology transfer, sensitization and advocacy. Those engaged in good practice need to share expertise and serve as examples to others. Tourists must be sensitized to how they can reduce their water consumption in support of water equity. Tourism cannot thrive in a destination that lacks water and cannot deal with its waste. Tourists surely have a moral duty to ensure that their travel does not endanger others.

• Green Hoteliers (2013): Water management and responsibility in Hotels. www.greenhotelier.org/know-how-guides/water-management-and-responsibility-in-hotels/ , accessed 25th October 2016.
• Tourism Concern (2012): Water equity in Tourism: A Human Right – A Global Responsibility. Report written and researched by Rachel Noble, Mia Brown, Stroma Cole, Lorna Slade, Rebecca Latchford and Dauda Niang, Anabel da Gama. 
• UNWTO (2015): Tourism and Sustainability Goals (2015), www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284417254 , accessed 20th October 2016
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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, water resources in the hotel industry: a systematic literature review.

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management

ISSN : 0959-6119

Article publication date: 11 January 2021

Issue publication date: 15 March 2021

This study aims to structure research on water resources in the hotel industry, identifying the key areas and research gaps in this field.

Design/methodology/approach

A systematic literature review of water use in the hotel industry has been performed using the Scopus and Web of Science databases. From 515 articles selected between the years 2000 and 2019, a sample of 58 articles was used to structure existing research on this subject.

Research is classified into four groups: water consumption, water management, impacts of water use and good practices, with different research methods and topics within each one. Existing research gaps and their causes are also discussed. The results show how academic research can help strengthen international methodologies that measure sustainability.

Research limitations/implications

Because of the search process, some publications on water consumption in the hotel industry may have been missed; also book chapters and conference papers were excluded. Furthermore, the authors recognise some subjectivity in the classification of articles.

Originality/value

To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first systematic analysis focussed on water use in the hotel industry. The findings can be used to build a research framework for this area, establishing an approach to cover research gaps and to connect academic research with general methodologies and indicators of sustainability, as well as improving data collection techniques in this field.

• Sustainability
• Hotel industry
• Sustainable Development Goals
• Systematic review

Antonova, N. , Ruiz-Rosa, I. and Mendoza-Jiménez, J. (2021), "Water resources in the hotel industry: a systematic literature review", International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management , Vol. 33 No. 2, pp. 628-649. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-07-2020-0711

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@Carlos Garriga – We Are Water Foundation

Saving water, the first step towards sustainable tourism

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Tourism is one of the key industries for international economic recovery after the pandemic, especially for developing countries. It is also key for the sustainability of the planet. Reducing the consumption of water is a priority first step.

Saving millions of liters of water, raising the awareness of guests of the importance of sustainable practices, turning them into communication agents in their homes and obtaining donations for aid projects in India , Guatemala and Indonesia are achievements that might have seemed overoptimistic a few years ago. Let’s Make a Deal , the initiative developed during the 2018 tourist season with Diamond Resorts , was able to do it. It was an eye-opening experience of the role of tourism as an effective awareness-raising factor in the importance of sustainability in the use of the water.  

Tourists consume more water than residents and in very different quantities depending on the destinations. © Dayana Brooke-unsplash

In total, 970,000 liters were saved by reducing towel washing alone and 1.02 million were saved by extending the use of sheets. Over 1,500 water filters were installed in toilets and kitchens to allow guests to refill their We Are Water bottles, leading to the saving of more than half a ton of plastic in containers and glasses.

Last October, amidst a crisis in the industry due to the Covid-19 lockdown, architects, developers and professionals of the tourism industry corroborated the importance of these goals at the Smart Water Smart Reaction debate, which took place in the virtual room at the Expo CIHAC Digital in Mexico City.

Saving millions of liters of water, raising the awareness of guests of the importance of sustainable practices and obtaining donations for aid projects in India , Guatemala and Indonesia are achievements that might have seemed overoptimistic a few years ago. © Javier Biscayar

Suzana Gomercic , senior vice president of European operations at Diamond Resorts, summarized the results of the initiative in their European facilities, pointing out that saving water had not been the only success: raising the awareness of guests and of the entire staff was much more revealing and encouraging. This was achieved with the development of educational and fun programs, such as the activities of the Aquanauts program for children and their families. Gomercic highlighted: “Combining sustainability and fun activities is ideal to raise awareness of cooperation and create positive habits that guests took home with them. Proof of the success is that we have managed to raise 40,000 euros in donations for the projects of the Foundation. We really managed to bring the message to life”.

More water is spent at the hotel than at home

Saving water is the first step towards a sustainable tourism industry. It is generally acknowledged that tourists consume more water than residents and in very different quantities depending on the destinations. The World Tourism Organization ( UNWTO ) states that in European hotels, every guest consumes on average around 394 liters per night; in Hong Kong, Singapore, Indonesia or Thailand, the average rises sharply to 677 liters, while in Barbados the figure rockets to 839 liters.

Sustainable tourism is one of the key industries for international economic recovery after the pandemic . © Shifaaz Shamoon-unsplash

If we compare this data to the consumption of guests in their homes, the contrast is striking: an average European consumes between 120 and 150 liters per day at home. If we consider the case of a citizen in Barcelona or Copenhagen, which consumes around 105 liters per day, one of the lowest consumptions in Europe, we see that they can multiply that consumption by four during their holidays in a Mediterranean hotel and by eight if they spend their vacation in a hotel in Barbados. In tourist destinations, per capita water consumption greatly increases when compared to domestic use.

These data are “per capita”; if we consider consumptions per room, in 2017, in tourist facilities in these countries, the usual consumption reached an average of 2,000 liters per day and in some cases even exceeded 3,400 liters per day.

Unsustainable pressure for many regions in the world

International tourism responds to the sun-and-beach claim: 85% of international tourists go to places with water scarcity, with a tendency to concentrate in the summer season in the northern hemisphere, as this is the part of the world that generates the most holiday travelers. The impact on the water resources of local communities is very high.

Recent research has provided in-depth analysis of consumption, offering data that must lead to reflection. Three months before the global lockdown, the   University of Palma de Mallorca published a must-read study that advocates an urgent change in the management of water and in the environmental responsibility of hotel owners and tour operators.  

These are recommendations that make up the conclusions of the experience of Let’s Make a Deal. The laundry service is an area with a high consumption of water and this is proportional to the number of stars of the facilities. In 3-star hotels it reaches a minimum percentage of 12% of the total consumption, but in luxury hotels located in tropical regions it can reach up to 50% of the total water expenditure, if no measures are taken to contain the laundering of sheets and towels. In these cases, the laundry service is the activity with the highest consumption. 

International tourism responds to the sun-and-beach claim: 85% of international tourists go to places with water scarcity. © dj Nick Otronic-unsplash

On the other hand, water consumption is correlated to electricity use. Efficient management measures and the use of recent technological resources can save an important amount of liters and kilowatts. A  study by British and Spanish researchers estimates that a hotel with 100 rooms can save at least 227 liters per room and night by implementing the right measures. That hotel could save up to 16,573 m 3 of water, 209,541 kWh of energy and 58,436 euros every year.

Encouraging guests to reuse towels and bed sheets and to reduce the duration of their showers can save millions of liters of water all around the world; and many more if WCs with partial flush or faucets with flow limiters are installed. Water sustainability takes a step further in new hotels and resorts , which opt for water recycling for irrigation, the adoption of native flora in gardening, and the collection of rainwater for ecological vegetable gardens. The architecture and design of new tourist destinations are fully embracing smart technologies, using automatic systems that adjust water pressure, detect leaks and monitor consumption.  

The tourism industry is aware of its incalculable potential as a tool for the creation of a sustainability culture, a culture that is one of the main assets to overcome the crisis caused by the pandemic. Even before lockdown, sustainable and environmentally-friendly tourism was key to improving a fair distribution of wealth; now it is even more important. With an estimated 1.8 billion travel arrivals worldwide by 2030, the way tourists consume water will determine the sustainability of the planet.

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Water consumption, tourism

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• Dolores Tirado Bennasar 3  

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Tourism requires water for consumptive and nonconsumptive uses. The former is the water from local supplies used by the tourism industry , such as for swimming pools, golf courses, meals, drinks, washing, and cleaning. The latter is not from the local network , but constitutes an integral part of the surroundings, such as what is enjoyed in wildlife, at beaches, and in water sports like diving, yachting, and fishing. In addition, tourism stimulates higher water consumption by sectors providing intermediate inputs or products, for example, agriculture. This also includes increased residential water demand due to population migration related to the tourism industry. All together, these make tourism heavily water dependent and a significant consumer of it.

Some major environmental impacts of tourism are related to water resources : land subsidence and lowering of the groundwater table; groundwater salinization; sewage pollution; water pollution by pesticides and fertilizers to maintain golf...

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Essex, S., M. Kent, and R. Newnham 2004 Tourism Development in Mallorca: Is Water Supply a Constraint? Journal of Sustainable Tourism 12:4-28.

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Gössling, S., P. Peeters, M. Hall, J. Ceron, G. Dubois, L. Lehmann, and D. Scott 2012 Tourism and Water Use: Supply, Demand, and Security. An International Review. Tourism Management 33:1-15.

Rico-Amoros, A., J. Olcina-Cantos, and D. Sauri 2009 Tourist Land Use Patterns and Water Demand: Evidence from the Western Mediterranean. Land Use Policy 26:493-501.

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Dolores Tirado Bennasar

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Jafar Jafari

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Honggen Xiao

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Tirado Bennasar, D. (2014). Water consumption, tourism. In: Jafari, J., Xiao, H. (eds) Encyclopedia of Tourism. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01669-6_313-1

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Travel Industry Today

How much water does tourism use.

With water an increasingly precious commodity and three-quarters of the planet’s population “water insecure,” according to the United Nations, the World Travel & Tourism Council has unveiled ground-breaking new data detailing the total water usage of the global Travel & Tourism sector.

In one of the largest research projects of its kind, WTTC, in conjunction with and the Saudi-based Sustainable Tourism Global Centre, can for the first time ever, accurately report and track the impact the sector has on the environment.

Direct water use

Speaking at the UN Headquarters, Chris Imbsen, Director of Sustainability at WTTC, revealed that Travel & Tourism’s entire water footprint is just 0.6% of the global water use according to the latest figures (2021).

In 2019, when the sector was at its peak, the sector’s total water footprint was only 50% higher, but still less than 1% of the global total at 0.9%.

Travel & Tourism’s direct water use is significantly lower – in 2019 it was 0.2% of the global total and has fallen by half to just 0.1% of the global total, says the WTTC, with much of the sector’s water use indirect, through its supply chain, such as agriculture and food production, which account for two-thirds of the entire water footprint.

Between 2010 and 2019, the Travel & Tourism sector in Europe and Africa reduced direct water use. In Europe, direct water use fell by 8% and in Africa, direct water use by the sector fell by 6%.

Julia Simpson, WTTC President & CEO, said: “This ground-breaking new data reveals our sector’s water consumption for the first time ever, revealing that Travel & Tourism uses less than 1% of the water used around the world, with the overwhelming majority of that usage coming from the sector’s supply chain.

“The data also shows that whilst the sector has grown economically around the world, its direct-use water intensity has decreased.

“The data is the most in depth study of the sector’s water use, and like the world-first climate footprint data we released at our Global Summit in Riyadh last year, we can also reveal individual countries’ Travel & Tourism sector’s water footprints. This will enable governments to work with the sector to further reduce water usage.”

Water intensity

The water intensity of Travel & Tourism per unit of GDP has also fallen since 2010, across both direct and indirect use.

In 2010, the sector used 0.57m³ of water for every $1 contributed to the global economy. In 2019 this fell by 19% to reach 0.46m³ of water for every $1 contributed to the global economy.

In a world-first, this comprehensive research covers 185 countries across all regions and will be updated each year with revised figures.

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Water resources utilization and tourism environment assessment based on water footprint

With population growth and economic development, global Water Resources (WR) are becoming increasingly scarce. As an important consumer sector, the tourism industry is increasingly consuming and polluting WR. How to reasonably utilize WR and protect the water environment has become an important issue for the sustainable development of the current tourism industry.

Based on the Water Footprint of WR utilization and tourism environment assessment, this article used four different WR management schemes in different tourist areas to compare with the traditional scheme.

According to the experimental results, it could be concluded that the wastewater discharge and environmental risk index under low Water Consumption technology in a certain mountainous tourist attraction were approximately 90,000   m 3 and 0.25, respectively; the wastewater discharge and environmental risk index of a certain tourist city using renewable water technology were approximately 600,000   m 3 and 0.5, respectively. The impact of adopting different WR management schemes in different regions has also varied.

This also indicated that when formulating WR management plans for various tourist areas, it was necessary to fully consider the impact of the tourism environment and develop scientific and reasonable management measures. The research in this article has broad application prospects in practice, which helped to promote sustainable economic development and progress in social civilization.

1 Introduction

With the increase of population and the acceleration of urbanization, the contradiction between the supply and demand of Water Resources (WR) has become increasingly prominent. As a comprehensive WR evaluation index, Water Footprint (WF) has gradually become a widely used term in the research field. The shortage of resources and pollution have become important issues that constrain the sustainable development of human society. The traditional WR assessment mainly focuses on the supply side, while the WF pays more attention to the use side, which can more comprehensively reflect the human use of WR. WF can provide a reference for WR management by considering production, consumption, international trade, and other factors to evaluate the utilization efficiency of WR as a whole. In addition, tourism, as one of the important pillars of China’s economy, has also become an important field of WR utilization. The tourism industry not only requires a large amount of WR to support its development, but also has a certain impact on the local water environment. The evaluation of WR utilization based on WF can be analyzed as a whole at the macro level, to improve the utilization efficiency of WR and maximize profit. The concept of WF fully considers the recycling of WR and can provide reasonable WR utilization strategies for relevant departments. The rapid development of the tourism industry is also increasing the demand for WR, but the development of the tourism industry also faces problems such as environmental pollution and ecological damage. In this context, tourism environmental impact assessment based on WF plays a very positive role in the green transformation of tourism and the popularization of environmental awareness. By calculating and comparing the WF of different types of tourism, the utilization of local WR by tourism can be more comprehensively understood, to adjust the development direction of tourism and further promote the sustainable development of tourism. The WR utilization and tourism environment assessment based on WF can grasp the utilization efficiency and profit of WR as a whole and provide a reference for WR management and the green development of tourism.

Through the assessment of the WF of the tourism industry, the consumption and pollution of WR by the tourism industry can be found, and more reasonable WR utilization strategies and environmental protection measures can be formulated to promote the sustainable development of the tourism industry. Yang used the data envelopment analysis Tobit two-stage model to evaluate the efficiency of WR utilization, and analyzed the regional differences and influencing factors of WR utilization [ 1 ]. Tibet is China’s province with the largest international river and WR reserves. Considering the negative output of WR utilization, Xie used a super-efficiency relaxation measure model to measure the WR utilization efficiency of Tibet and the Tibetan region from 2006 to 2016 [ 2 ]. Wang established a quantitative model based on system dynamics theory to reflect the coupled system of “socio-economic water environment.” He chose Hubei Province, China, to validate the model. The results indicated that the water supply and demand and pollution pressure under the sustainable development scenario were lower than those under the other two scenarios. This meant that the role of industrial structure adjustment in alleviating water supply and demand pressure was relatively weak [ 3 ]. The evaluation of WR utilization and tourism environment based on WF has important background significance.

WF is an indicator to measure the utilization of WR. It can comprehensively consider the consumption and pollution of water and more comprehensively evaluate the utilization of WR. The United States is the world’s largest producer of goods and services. Rainfall, surface water supply, and groundwater aquifers are basic inputs for economic production. Marston Landon calculated the WF of more than 500 food, energy, mining, services, manufacturing, and commodities in the United States. A data-intensive method was adopted to integrate WF and input-output technology into a new methodology framework. This method could help to understand the WR in the United States economy, to enable supply chain managers to assess direct and indirect water dependence [ 4 ]. The concept of WF is considered very valuable in raising people’s awareness of the large amount of WR needed to produce and consume food. Vanham Davy provided three major European countries (Britain, France, and Germany) with a geographically detailed national WF related to food consumption. Using socio-economic data, national food survey, and international food consumption and WF databases, the national WF data could be refined to the smallest possible administrative boundary within a country [ 5 ]. However, they did not provide corresponding rectification suggestions for the shortcomings of these plans.

To enhance the utilization efficiency of WR and improve the ecological environment of tourism, this article focused on the analysis of WR utilization and tourism environment assessment based on WF and analyzed different tourism and different WR management schemes. According to the experimental results, it could be concluded that different WR management schemes had different effects in different tourism industries. Some were better than traditional solutions, while others were not as good as traditional solutions. The innovation of this article was to use the theory of WF, comprehensively consider Water Consumption (WC) and pollution, and more comprehensively evaluate the WR utilization of tourism. When proposing improvement suggestions, full consideration should be given to the sustainable development of the tourism industry and environmental protection, which could ensure the efficiency of WR utilization and reduce WR consumption and pollution.

2 Calculation algorithm of WF

The WF refers to the amount of freshwater used by a person, a community, or a country in the production and consumption process. WF is a comprehensive indicator, which is used to measure the amount of WR used by a country, region, or individual in the production and consumption process. According to different types of WF, it can be divided into blue WF, green WF, and gray WF. The process framework for WR utilization and tourism environment evaluation is shown in Figure 1 .

Framework diagram of WR utilization and tourism environment evaluation.

2.1 Calculation and evaluation of gray WF

With the rapid development of China’s tourism industry, the demand for WR in the tourism industry is increasing, which also brings about the problem of gray water discharge. Gray water refers to living sewage other than toilet sewage, including sewage generated from laundry, bathing, and dishwashing. Grey water can be purified through simple physical and biological treatment processes, and can then be used for irrigating plants, flushing toilets, cleaning floors, and other nondrinking water purposes, thereby achieving WR conservation and recycling.

With the continuous development of the tourism industry, the discharge of gray water has been increasing year by year. According to statistics, the overall gray water discharge from China’s tourism industry reached approximately 50.89 billion cubic meters in 2018. Among them, gray water discharge from hotels and tourist attractions accounts for the largest proportion [ 6 , 7 ]. At present, the gray water discharge standards for China’s tourism industry are relatively lagging, and some regions have not even formulated the corresponding gray water discharge standards. This has led to non-standard discharge standards for gray water in the tourism industry, making it difficult to unify management and supervision, which has had a certain impact on the environment. Especially in the peak tourist season, the capacity of gray water treatment facilities in some tourist attractions and hotels is insufficient, which makes it difficult to effectively treat the gray water discharge and has a certain impact on the surrounding environment. The treatment of gray water discharge in the tourism industry faces certain difficulties and challenges [ 8 , 9 ]. On the one hand, the discharge of gray water from the tourism industry involves multiple departments and fields, making governance difficult. On the other hand, some tourist attractions and hotels have problems such as irregular gray water discharge, lack of treatment facilities, and high treatment costs [ 10 , 11 ].

2.1.1 Agricultural gray WF

This article selected the value of nitrogen element as the evaluation standard and used the surface pollution source formula for calculation. The formula is as follows:

Among them, GWF xhk is the agricultural gray WF; β is the proportion of nitrogen fertilizer entering the unit water body; variable Xqqz is the amount of nitrogen fertilizer used; E max is the concentration of pollutant water quality; E mxd is the natural local concentration of the storage water body.

2.1.2 Industrial ash WF

The key pollutants in industrial sewage are chemical oxygen demand and ammonia nitrogen, so the above two are selected as indicators to calculate industrial ash WF:

Among them, GWF jmt ( j ) refers to the industrial ash WF based on the j -type pollutant; Z jmt ( j ) is the emission load of the j th industrial pollutant; GWF jmt represents the total WF of industrial ash; S ct is the discharge amount of industrial wastewater.

2.1.3 Living ash WF

Living sewage and industrial sewage are both point source pollution, and their key pollutants are the same as industrial sewage. Therefore, the calculation formulas of living ash WF are as follows:

2.1.4 Regional total gray WF

The total ash WF can be obtained by summing the agricultural, industrial, and living ash WF. The calculation formula is as follows:

Among them, TGWF is the total gray WF.

2.2 China gray WF rectification suggestions

The current situation of China’s tourism gray WF cannot be ignored. In order to achieve the sustainable development of tourism, it is necessary to strengthen the management and supervision of graywater discharge in tourism and formulate the corresponding graywater discharge standards, to strengthen the construction, operation, and maintenance of graywater treatment facilities in tourist attractions and hotels. It also needs to promote cleaner production, water-saving technology, and other means, and reduce the waste and pollution of WR, to jointly achieve the sustainable development of tourism [ 12 , 13 ].

2.2.1 Improved regional balance

To improve the gray WF in China’s economy, it is necessary to adjust the traditional industrial structure, increase the independent research and development of wastewater treatment technology, and formulate a set of scientific and practical wastewater treatment schemes. At the same time, it is also necessary to carry out discharge permission and water environment monitoring for wastewater, to gradually improve the utilization efficiency of WR, minimize the gray WF of each region, and improve the environmental fairness of WR [ 14 , 15 ]. Scientific and feasible wastewater treatment schemes include biological treatment, chemical treatment, physical treatment, plant treatment, and so on. The eastern region should focus on the remediation of water pollution in provinces and cities with high internal gray WF and conduct a comprehensive investigation of pollution sources, to promote the innovation of sewage treatment technology and improve the urban drainage network and the normalized urban and rural water quality monitoring system. Reducing the gray WF in the central and western regions is the key to improving the balance of China’s gray WF and improving the equity of the water environment. Therefore, it is necessary to do the following work: On the basis of promoting efficient farmland irrigation technology, it is necessary to reduce the loss of pesticides and fertilizers, develop ecological agriculture, and gradually replace fertilizers; it is necessary to strengthen the management of high pollution industries, complete rectification within the specified time, and vigorously develop “green” industries; while implementing sewage treatment projects, the construction of sewage treatment projects should be strengthened to fully utilize their functions; on this basis, further research and development would be carried out on a water quality purification system suitable for the local area.

2.2.2 Improved structural balance

Improving the balance degree of agricultural gray WF : Improving the balance degree of China’s economic aggregate gray WF and controlling water pollution are the key work of each major agricultural pollution province. In the planting industry, various effective irrigation methods are adopted based on the local situation, and soil testing and fertilization formulas are applied. Biopesticide technology is developed, and economic subsidies are provided to farmers developing ecological agriculture. In the aquaculture industry, reasonable scale control has been implemented for livestock and poultry farming. Feed quality has been adjusted, and dry and fecal cleaning technologies have been promoted to minimize pollution emissions. On this basis, people have proposed a sustainable development model with livestock and poultry breeding, biogas production, and composting as the main goals. Livestock and poultry breeding biogas production composting is a production mode that comprehensively utilizes livestock and poultry manure. Specifically, the feces generated during livestock and poultry farming can be fermented to produce biogas and compost, which can be used for energy and fertilizer production, thus achieving waste resource utilization and environmental protection. Improving the balance of industrial sewage footprint : Heat energy and process water should be saved, and the reuse of industrial water should be improved by using technologies such as sewage closed-circuit reuse; by diverting clean and dirty water from drainage pipelines, the sewage treatment and standard discharge rate can be improved; for enterprises with severe pollution, rectification can be carried out within the specified time to meet the requirements. Improving the level-by-level balance of living wastewater : The resource utilization of living wastewater should be promoted, and public ecological awareness should be raised. Water prices and sewage treatment costs should be adjusted, and the scope of collection should be expanded. Collection standards should be raised, and the popularization of living wastewater treatment facilities and water-saving equipment in underdeveloped areas should be accelerated, thereby improving the fairness of the water environment. Before the sewage enters the sewage treatment plant, pretreatment facilities such as grids, sand settling tanks, and regulating tanks can be set up to pretreat the wastewater and remove suspended and sediment particles of large particles, to reduce the burden on the sewage treatment plant.

3 Experimental evaluation of WR utilization and tourism environment assessment based on WF

3.1 experimental design.

Background and significance of the experiment : With the development of the tourism industry, the increase in WC and wastewater discharge has become one of the important issues in WR management and environmental protection [ 16 ]. The increase in WC and wastewater discharge in the tourism industry may have an impact on the sustainability of the tourism industry. If the tourism industry causes damage to the local WR and environment, it may affect the long-term development of the local tourism industry. Traditional WR management methods are no longer able to meet the sustainable development needs of the tourism industry. Therefore, researching and developing new WR management technologies is crucial for the sustainable development of the tourism industry. This article aims to evaluate the impact of different WR management technologies on the WC, wastewater discharge, WR utilization efficiency, and environmental risk index of the tourism industry, and provide sustainable WR management solutions for the tourism industry.

The WF algorithm is a method to assess the consumption of WRs by human activities. It quantifies the impact of human activities on WRs and expresses it as WF. In the experimental analysis of WRs utilization and tourism environment assessment based on WF, this article can integrate the WF algorithm into it to better analyze the utilization and protection of WRs [ 17 ].

In terms of WRs utilization, this article can use the WF algorithm to measure the use of WRs by various human activities. For example, in the tourism industry, the WF algorithm can be used to assess the consumption of local WRs by tourism activities. This way, this article can better understand the WR needs of different tourism activities and develop reasonable tourism planning and management measures to minimize WR waste and pollution [ 18 ].

For the experimental analysis of tourism environmental assessment, this article can use the WF algorithm to assess the status of local WRs. By measuring the WF, we can understand the impact of various human activities on WRs, to help us assess the local WRs utilization and protection. When evaluating the tourism environment, WF can be used as an important evaluation indicator to better understand the impact of tourism activities on local WRs, to better develop tourism planning and management measures to minimize waste and pollution of WRs.

Integrating the WF algorithm into the experimental analysis of WRs utilization and tourism environment assessment based on WF can help people better understand the consumption of WRs by human activities, assess the impact of tourism activities on WRs, and develop better tourism planning and management measures to protect local WRs [ 19 , 20 ].

Experimental Area : This article selects different types of tourist areas, including mountainous tourist attractions, tourist cities, lake scenic areas, and coastal tourist areas.

Experimental group and control group : This article would use WR management schemes of low WC technology, renewable water utilization technology, ecological restoration technology, and rainwater collection technology as the experimental group. This article would use traditional WR management schemes as the control group.

3.2 Experimental steps

Step 1: Determining the experimental area, experimental group, and control group.

First, different types of tourist areas were selected, including mountainous tourist attractions, tourist cities, lake scenic areas, and coastal tourist areas (as shown in Figure 2 ). The experimental area was divided into an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group adopted a WR management plan consisting of low WC technology, renewable water utilization technology, ecological restoration technology, and rainwater collection technology, while the control group used traditional WR management plans as the control group.

Study area map.

Step 2: Collecting data on tourism WC and wastewater discharge in the experimental area, and calculating WR utilization efficiency and environmental risk index

The calculation formula for WC in the tourism industry is WC in the tourism industry = number of tourists × WC coefficient of tourism industry;

The calculation formula for wastewater discharge is wastewater discharge = tourism WC × wastewater discharge coefficient.

The calculation formula for WR utilization efficiency is WR utilization efficiency = tourism WC/total WR × 100%;

The calculation formula for the environmental risk index is environmental risk index = wastewater discharge/water environment capacity × 100%.

In the experimental group, different WR management technologies were used to control and manage the WC and wastewater discharge of the tourism industry.

Step 3: The experimental group adopted a WR management plan consisting of low WC technology, renewable water utilization technology, ecological restoration technology, and rainwater collection technology to control and manage the WC and wastewater discharge of the tourism industry.

Low WC technology includes measures such as improving equipment, adjusting equipment, adjusting water quality, and controlling water flow;

Renewable water utilization technology includes measures such as irrigation, flushing, and recycled water circulation;

Ecological restoration technologies include measures such as wetland restoration, vegetation restoration, and soil restoration;

Rainwater collection technology includes measures such as rainwater collection and utilization.

Step 4: The data of the experimental group and the control group were compared. The impact of different WR management technologies on tourism WC, wastewater discharge, WR utilization efficiency, and environmental risk index was analyzed.

Using statistical methods, data were analyzed and processed using software such as SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solutions) to obtain experimental results.

3.3 Experimental data processing and evaluation

The WR utilization and tourism environment assessment based on the WF has important research significance to different types of tourism regions, which helps to promote the sustainable development of tourism, improve the efficiency of WR utilization, and promote the improvement of WR management theory. This article selects different types of tourist areas, including mountainous tourist attractions, tourist cities, lake scenic areas, and coastal tourist areas. Different tourist attractions and enterprises were selected from different tourist regions, and data on WC and wastewater discharge in the tourism industry were collected. At the same time, data on the total amount of WR and water environmental capacity in various tourist areas were also collected. After data processing, data on tourism WC, wastewater discharge, WR utilization efficiency, and environmental risk index were obtained. This article used software such as SPSS to analyze the data. First, descriptive statistical analysis was conducted on the WC, wastewater discharge, WR utilization efficiency, and environmental risk index of the tourism industry to obtain statistical indicators such as average and standard deviation of each indicator. Methods such as analysis of variance were used to compare the data of the experimental group and the control group and to obtain the effects of different WR management technologies on tourism WC, wastewater discharge, WR utilization efficiency, and environmental risk index.

The blue WF and green WF are two different types of WF, which refer to the amount of fresh water and rainwater used by human beings, respectively. The blue WF and green WF of the tourist attraction can be calculated according to the WC and water use mode of the tourist attraction. At the same time, the gray WF of the scenic spot can be calculated according to the sewage discharge of the scenic spot. According to the calculation results, the influencing factors were analyzed, such as the development level of the tourism industry and the scarcity of WR. The results are shown in Table 1 .

Data of WC and WF of four tourist attractions

This article conducted a comparative experiment on WR management in a mountainous tourist attraction using low WC technology. The experimental group adopted low WC technology for WR management in tourist attractions, while the control group adopted traditional WR management in tourist attractions. Figure 3 shows the experimental results. The units of WC and wastewater discharge in the tourism industry in the following text were both 10,000 m 3 .

WR management scheme for low WC technology.

Figure 3(a) shows the WR management plan for mountainous tourist attractions in the experimental group, and Figure 3(b) shows the WR management plan for mountainous tourist attractions in the control group. In Figure 3 , the WC of the tourism industry using low WC technology in a certain mountainous tourist attraction was approximately 150,000 m 3 , and the wastewater discharge was approximately 90,000 m 3 . The efficiency of WR utilization was approximately 68%, and the environmental risk index was approximately 0.25. The tourism industry using traditional WR management schemes consumes approximately 270,000 m 3 of water and discharges approximately 200,000 m 3 of wastewater. The efficiency of WR utilization was approximately 57%, and the environmental risk index was approximately 0.45. Therefore, it could be concluded that the use of low WC technology in mountainous tourist attractions was more effective than traditional solutions.

This article presents a comparative experiment on WR management in a tourist city using renewable water technology. The experimental group adopted renewable water utilization technology for WR management in tourist cities, while the control group adopted traditional WR management in tourist cities. Figure 4 shows the experimental results.

WR management plan for renewable water utilization technology.

In Figure 4 , Figure 4(a) shows the WR management scheme of renewable water utilization technology, and Figure 4(b) shows the traditional WR management scheme. In Figure 4 , the WC of the tourism industry under the use of renewable water technology in a certain tourist city was approximately 800,000 m 3 , and the wastewater discharge was approximately 600,000 m 3 . The efficiency of WR utilization was approximately 75%, and the environmental risk index was approximately 0.5. The tourism industry using traditional WR management schemes consumes approximately 1 million m 3 of water and discharges approximately 800,000 m 3 of wastewater. The efficiency of WR utilization was approximately 80%, and the environmental risk index was approximately 0.6. Although the use of renewable water technology in tourist cities was more effective than traditional schemes, the utilization rate of WR was still not as good as traditional schemes, so rectification was needed.

This article presents a comparative experiment on WR management in a lake scenic area using ecological restoration technology. The experimental group adopted ecological restoration technology for WR management in lake scenic areas, while the control group adopted traditional WR management in lake scenic areas. Tables 2 and 3 show the experimental results.

WR management plans for ecological restoration technology

WR Management solutions for traditional technologies

In Tables 2 and 3 , the tourism industry’s WC and wastewater discharge under the ecological restoration technology in a certain lake scenic area were approximately 350,000  and 250,000 m 3 , respectively. The efficiency of WR utilization was approximately 71%, and the environmental risk index was approximately 0.4. The tourism industry using traditional WR management schemes consumes approximately 500,000 m 3 of water and discharges approximately 400,000 m 3 of wastewater. The efficiency of WR utilization was approximately 80%, and the environmental risk index was approximately 0.3. Traditional solutions were more effective in tourist cities.

This article presents a comparative experiment on WR management in a coastal tourism area using rainwater harvesting technology. The experimental group adopted rainwater harvesting technology for WR management in coastal tourism areas, while the control group adopted traditional WR management in coastal tourism areas. Figure 5 shows the experimental results.

WR management plan for rainwater harvesting technology.

In Figure 5 , Figure 5(a) shows a WR management scheme using rainwater harvesting technology, and Figure 5(b) shows a traditional WR management scheme. In Figure 5 , the WC of the tourism industry using rainwater harvesting technology in a certain coastal tourism area was approximately 1.2 million m 3 , and the wastewater discharge was approximately 900,000 m 3 . The efficiency of WR utilization was approximately 75%, and the environmental risk index was approximately 0.8. The tourism industry using traditional WR management schemes consumes approximately 1.5 million m 3 of water and discharges approximately 1.2 million m 3 of wastewater. The efficiency of WR utilization was approximately 80%, and the environmental risk index was approximately 1.2. From this, it could be concluded that the environmental pollution risks of using both traditional schemes and rainwater harvesting techniques in coastal tourist areas were very high, so they could not be adopted.

3.4 Rectification opinions

For the four experiments designed for WR utilization and tourism environment assessment based on WF, the following rectification opinions are adopted in this article:

Experiment 1: comparative experiments on WR management in tourist attractions using low WC technology

For tourist attractions with high WC, WC can be reduced by introducing water-saving equipment and improving facilities. For scenic spots with low WR utilization efficiency, it is possible to strengthen the management and protection of WR, promote water-saving measures, and improve the utilization efficiency of WR. The scenic spot management department should strengthen education and guidance for tourists, enhance their environmental and water-saving awareness, and further reduce the waste and loss of WR.

Experiment 2: comparative experiment of water pollution control technologies in tourist attractions

For scenic spots with poor water quality, the construction and operation of sewage treatment facilities should be strengthened to ensure that the effective treatment and discharge of sewage meet the standards. For scenic spots with good water quality, source control should be carried out, the management and guidance of tourists should be strengthened, illegal pollution discharge and littering should be reduced, and the quality of WR should be protected. For scenic areas with poor sewage treatment efficiency, technical transformation and equipment updates should be strengthened to improve sewage treatment efficiency and quality.

Experiment 3: comparative experiment of WR management planning in tourist attractions

For scenic spots with sufficient WR utilization, it is necessary to strengthen the protection and management of WR, establish WR management plans, and develop scientific and reasonable WR utilization plans. For scenic areas with water scarcity, scientific and reasonable WR utilization measures should be taken, and the promotion and application of water-saving measures should be strengthened to improve the efficiency of WR utilization. The scenic area management department should establish a reasonable WR management system based on the actual situation of the scenic area and strengthen the supervision and protection of WR.

Experiment 4: comparative experiment of water energy consumption in tourist attractions

For scenic areas with high energy consumption, clean energy and energy-saving technologies should be adopted to reduce energy consumption and environmental impact. For scenic areas with low energy utilization efficiency, energy management and regulation should be strengthened, advanced technologies and management models of energy management should be promoted, and energy utilization efficiency should be improved. The scenic area management department should strengthen education and guidance for tourists, enhance their awareness of environmental protection and energy conservation, and reduce energy waste and loss.

This article should strengthen the scientific and reasonable planning and management in WR management and environmental protection of tourist attractions, and actively promote water-saving, energy-saving, and other technical means, to strengthen the education and guidance of tourists, thus improving the environmental awareness and water-saving awareness of tourists and jointly achieving the sustainable development of tourist attraction.

4 Conclusion

This article aimed to evaluate the WR utilization and tourism environment of tourist attractions based on the WF method. Through the WF assessment of different tourist attractions, it is found that there are obvious differences in the WR utilization efficiency of different tourist attractions. Some scenic spots have successfully reduced WC and improved WR utilization efficiency by adopting low WC technology and improving WR management; however, some scenic spots face problems such as WR waste and poor management, leading to waste and loss of WR. When formulating WR management plans for scenic spots, it is necessary to fully consider the impact of the tourism environment and develop scientific and reasonable management measures. The experimental design of WR utilization and tourism environment assessment based on WF can provide a scientific basis for the WR management of tourist attractions, find problems and improve them, and promote the sustainable development of tourist attractions. It is suggested that the WF method should be widely used in the WR management of tourist attractions to strengthen the management and protection of WR and improve the utilization efficiency of WR, to achieve sustainable development. This article only provided evaluation and improvement suggestions for WR utilization and environmental protection and did not involve other factors that affect the sustainable development of the tourism industry, such as cultural, social, and economic factors.

Funding information: This work was supported by Project No. XP201811S, 2018 Wuyi University Scientific Research Platform project, subject name: Research on Tourism Experience Marketing of World Heritage Sites; Project No. YJ202312, 2023 Wuyi University talent introduction research start-up funding project, subject name: Research on the Spatio temporal Evolution and Driving Mechanism of Mount Wuyi Recreational Space, a World Double Heritage Site.

Conflict of interest: There is no potential conflict of interest in our article, and all authors have seen the manuscript and approved it to submit to your journal. We confirm that the content of the manuscript has not been published or submitted for publication elsewhere.

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Journal and Issue

Articles in the same issue.

Tourism and water: Interrelationships and management

July 16th, 2013

Prof. Stefan Gössling, Linnaeus University, Sweden

Tourism accounts for a minor share of global water use. In comparison to agriculture, which constitutes an estimated 70% of total water consumption, tourism is far less relevant at 1%. 1 Yet tourism is often a major user of freshwater in areas where water is scarce or where renewal rates of aquifers are limited, and its contribution to water consumption can be nationally and regionally significant. For instance, in Barbados, Cyprus, and Malta, tourism accounts for up to 7.3% of national water consumption, 2  and in coastal zones of the Caribbean or the Mediterranean, tourism is generally the dominant sector for water use. Tourism and leisure activities can also be a major factor in water consumption at the regional level. 3

These figures refer to direct water use, including kitchens, laundry, toilets, showers, swimming pools, cooling, or the irrigation of gardens, as well as water use for various activities such as golf, diving, saunas, or spas. Water consumption rates as reported in the literature are in the range of 84-2,000 L per tourist per day, and up to 3,423 L per bedroom per day. 2 Various factors influence water use. With regard to geographical location, hotels in the tropics are more likely to have irrigated gardens and swimming pools – the two most significant individual sources of water demand in this sector – while hotels in rural areas will usually occupy larger areas than their urban counterparts. High-rise hotels will have lower water use levels than resort style hotels, and campsites are likely to consume considerably less water than five star hotels, specifically hotels associated with golf courses, which can consume up to 1 million m 3 of water per year. Such distinctions can be of major importance in regional planning and water management.

Even though such direct water use values appear considerable, indirect tourism-related water consumption is even more relevant, creating water hinterlands, i.e. regions from where “virtual” water is imported. For instance, construction accounts for an estimated 17% of global water consumption, mostly for cement production, and water use in fuel production can be as high as 18 L of water per 1 L of gasoline. 4  Biofuels, often seen as the solution to future energy scarcity, are especially water intensive, with an estimated 2% of all irrigation water already being allocated to biofuels. The production of 1 L of liquid biofuels is currently estimated to consume 2,500 L of water. Water is also used for thermoelectric cooling, hydropower, minerals extraction, and mining, while energy for water production is required in pumping, transport, treatment, and desalination. There are consequently various linkages between tourism, water production, building materials, and energy use.

Food is another important issue because its preparation requires large volumes of water. Specifically in tropical tourism, food availability and provisions are an important part of the image of ‘abundance’ that characterises the tropical tourism paradise. In such environments, considerable amounts of food may be thrown away, while small islands in particular may import a large share of foodstuffs by air, often over large distances. This generates ‘water hinterlands’, as both fuel and food production require vast amounts of water. For instance, water requirements to support tourist diets are in the order of up to 5,000 L per tourist per day, and a 14-day holiday may involve water use exceeding 70 m 3  of water for food alone (see Figure 1).

While tourism is thus a potentially dominant factor in total water consumption in certain holiday destinations, its overall significance for local or regional water resources is dependent on the context. Water may be scarce in some destinations and abundant in others. Moreover, rainfall and visitation patterns vary throughout the year and there is also the distinction between the share of water provided locally and the share embedded in consumption of externally produced goods.

It is important to consider that future climate change will significantly affect rainfall and water availability. For example, regional changes in the intensity and extremes of precipitation patterns, increases in precipitation in the high latitudes and parts of the tropics, and decreases in rainfall in sub-tropical and lower mid-latitude regions. 5 Climate change will also affect water quality, for instance raising water temperatures, or changing rainfall patterns and intensities. Given these adverse future shifts, the management of water resources must be a key management priority in tourist destinations both in terms of actual consumption levels (direct and indirect) as well as future availability.

Tourism’s impact on fresh water availability and quality is dependent on a wide range of factors, such as the relative abundance and quality of water in the respective tourism region, current and anticipated future water abstraction rates, the share of non-consumptive versus consumptive uses, the seasonal and spatial character of water abstraction, competing uses, and the treatment of sewage and wastewater. The fact that many of these issues are interrelated necessitates careful analysis of potential measures to manage freshwater resources: there may be ‘win-win’ solutions, or trade-offs may be required between different factors. Management responses to water scarcity can be categorised under two broad strategies: demand side management (reducing water consumption) and supply side management (increasing water provision). For many hotels, there are considerable opportunities to minimize water demand, in the order of 10-45%. Water management should also consider indirect water consumption, however, as a large share of water use might be embedded in the consumption of goods imported from elsewhere. Evidence suggests that where water consumption is reduced, this can usually be achieved without any loss of convenience for guests, and at a financial gain. As an example, investments in water saving technology in hotels, including new showerheads, new pan and cisterns, or flow control in taps typically have payback periods from a few months to less than five years.

References :

1. Gössling, S. (2002), Global environmental consequences of tourism, Global Environmental Change , 12(4) , 283-302. 2. Gössling, S., Peeters, P., Hall, C.M., Dubois, G., Ceron, J.P., Lehmann, L., and Scott, D. (2012), Tourism and water use: supply, demand, and security. An international review, Tourism Management, 33(1) , 1-15. 3. Essex, S., Kent, M., and Newnham, R. (2004), Tourism development in Mallorca. Is water supply a constraint? Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 12(1) , 4-28. 4. Worldwatch Institute (2004), Rising impacts of water use , http://www.worldwatch. org/topics/consumption/sow/trendsfacts/2004/03/03/. 5. IPCC (2007), Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability; In: Parry, M. L., Canziani, O. F., Palutikof, J. P., van der Linden, P. J., and Hanson, C. E. (Eds.), Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.

Stefan Gössling is a professor at the School of Business and Economics at Linnaeus University, Kalmar, and the Department of Service Management, Lund University, both Sweden. He is also the research coordinator of the Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism at the Western Norway Research Institute. Stefan has worked with tourism since 1992, focusing primarily on aviation, transport, mobilities, energy, carbon and water management, as well as sustainable tourism more generally. He has worked extensively in islands, particularly in the Western Indian Ocean and the Caribbean. Consultant work includes UNEP, UNWTO, OECD, EC, GIZ, DFID, AusAID, Caribbean Tour Operators, as well as governments and companies. He has been a contributing author to the UN IPCC Fourth Assessment report, and is a member of the Advisory Committee of the UNEP Global Partnership for Sustainable Tourism.  The article is based on Gössling, S., Peeters, P., Hall, C.M., Dubois, G., Ceron, J.P., Lehmann, L., and Scott, D. 2012. Tourism and water use: supply, demand, and security. An international review. Tourism Management 33(1): 1-15.

The views expressed in this article belong to the individual authors and do not represent the views of the Global Water Forum, the UNESCO Chair in Water Economics and Transboundary Water Governance, UNESCO, the Australian National University, or any of the institutions to which the authors are associated. Please see the Global Water Forum terms and conditions here .

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

This article is part of the research topic.

The Potentials and Pitfalls from National Blue Economy Plans Towards Sustainable Development

Local Perspectives on Marine Ecotourism Development in a Water-Insecure Island Region: The Case of Bocas del Toro, Panama Provisionally Accepted

• 1 Dalhousie University, Canada
• 2 Center for Tropical Island Biodiversity Studies, School for Field Studies, Panama

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

As a dimension of a blue economy, marine ecotourism should, in theory, not only increase economic viability and environmental sustainability but, most importantly, pursue socially equitable outcomes. In tropical and sub-tropical island regions, where substantial tourism development is often coupled with widespread strains on public infrastructure and services, including water access, there exists a need to better understand the expansion of this industry is felt at the community level; more importantly by individuals who are reliant on these infrastructures and services. Through a case study of the Bocas del Toro Archipelago, where water insecurity is becoming acute, we draw on and mobilize stories from local community members, alongside non-participant observations and document collection, to 1) document the experience of some community members with water insecurity and shortages, including how they perceive the roles played by the central government and marine ecotourism sector, and 2) examine how community members feel about how communities feel about policies and investment priorities of the central government regarding water insecurity, including the extent to which they view marine ecotourism development as undermining or promoting local needs. Our results underline the complex nature of marine ecotourism governance and infrastructure development outcomes in a resource-insecure island region, demonstrating that current issues are greatly impacted by historical and social underpinnings of neo-colonialism and systemic racism, misalignments of community vs. government development priorities, and eroded political trust, that shape local experiences with sustainable development and local residents’ perceptions of the ability of marine ecotourism to address issues of water insecurity. Moreover, while our focus is on the marine ecotourism industry, the significance of these findings contributes to a growing body of literature that places local experiences at the forefront of research into the implications of sustainable development in island regions.

Keywords: marine ecotourism1, water security2, blue economy3, island systems4, Bocas del Toro5, sustainable development6

Received: 26 Jan 2024; Accepted: 02 May 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Kim, Scott and Swartz. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Mx. Abigael Kim, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada

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‘Playbook’ helps industry guard against cyberattack

Late last year, Iran-affiliated hackers began attacking U.S. water systems that use Israeli-made computer equipment to control the addition of chemicals in their treatment plants — with one of the victims being the public water system in Aliquippa.

With the help of the federal government, the industry has developed a playbook to guard against such attacks.

For the most part, precautions operators need to take against the various modes of attack are common-sensical — “cyber 101,” according to David Hozza, assistant teaching professor for cybersecurity at Penn State’s College of Information Sciences & Technology.

Those include firewalls, multi-factorial authentication that includes strong passwords and virtual private networks, rather than internet-connected ones, Hozza said.

The Iran-affiliated hackers attacked Aliquippa’s supervisory control and data acquisition system that ran its programmable logic controllers.

They were able to hack the system because it was on public-facing internet, Hozza said. Such systems allow operators to adjust chemical flows in water treatment plants remotely, including from home.

If a hacker can acquire a username and password for those systems, thus gaining control, the hacker can change the rate of flow for chemicals, potentially harming a system’s customers.

Like many water systems, Aliquippa’s didn’t change the factory-default password on its controller, and hackers were able to obtain it, likely through a simple internet search, and take control of the program, according to Hozza.

Aliquippa also didn’t have a firewall or multi-factor authentication.

“It was a failure on all levels,” Hozza said.

Changing the factory default password to a strong one is a fundamental requirement.

Creating a strong password can prevent hackers from figuring out passwords through “brute force” programs that randomly generate millions of possibilities, running a script for hours, or by using a more efficient “dictionary” tactic that tries a limited set of known passwords, Hozza said.

Passwords should be “unique, strong and complex,” according to the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency.

A simple tactic, beyond a strong password, is to lock out those making attempts after three to five failures, Hozza said.

In addition, firewalls are gatekeepers that permit entry only to authorized internet protocol addresses, blocking all other traffic. They retain information on the identity of sites that have proven to be problematic, almost like a “do not fly” list for airports, Hozza said. Their default settings can be denial, he said.

Another tactic, multi-factor authentication, comprises not only usernames and passwords, but also an appropriate response to a texted or emailed code sent to the user, so the user can confirm his or her own identity, according to Hozza.

Then there is the VPN, which encrypts information flowing back and forth, preventing hackers from intercepting usernames, passwords and the like in a form they can interpret, Hozza said.

Organizations also need to keep current with software updates on their equipment, which would contain the latest protective patches, according to a joint-agency advisory published by CISA.

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