christopher columbus later voyages

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Christopher Columbus

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 11, 2023 | Original: November 9, 2009

The explorer Christopher Columbus made four trips across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain: in 1492, 1493, 1498 and 1502. He was determined to find a direct water route west from Europe to Asia, but he never did. Instead, he stumbled upon the Americas. Though he did not “discover” the so-called New World—millions of people already lived there—his journeys marked the beginning of centuries of exploration and colonization of North and South America.

Christopher Columbus and the Age of Discovery

During the 15th and 16th centuries, leaders of several European nations sponsored expeditions abroad in the hope that explorers would find great wealth and vast undiscovered lands. The Portuguese were the earliest participants in this “ Age of Discovery ,” also known as “ Age of Exploration .”

Starting in about 1420, small Portuguese ships known as caravels zipped along the African coast, carrying spices, gold and other goods as well as enslaved people from Asia and Africa to Europe.

Did you know? Christopher Columbus was not the first person to propose that a person could reach Asia by sailing west from Europe. In fact, scholars argue that the idea is almost as old as the idea that the Earth is round. (That is, it dates back to early Rome.)

Other European nations, particularly Spain, were eager to share in the seemingly limitless riches of the “Far East.” By the end of the 15th century, Spain’s “ Reconquista ”—the expulsion of Jews and Muslims out of the kingdom after centuries of war—was complete, and the nation turned its attention to exploration and conquest in other areas of the world.

Early Life and Nationality 

Christopher Columbus, the son of a wool merchant, is believed to have been born in Genoa, Italy, in 1451. When he was still a teenager, he got a job on a merchant ship. He remained at sea until 1476, when pirates attacked his ship as it sailed north along the Portuguese coast.

The boat sank, but the young Columbus floated to shore on a scrap of wood and made his way to Lisbon, where he eventually studied mathematics, astronomy, cartography and navigation. He also began to hatch the plan that would change the world forever.

Christopher Columbus' First Voyage

At the end of the 15th century, it was nearly impossible to reach Asia from Europe by land. The route was long and arduous, and encounters with hostile armies were difficult to avoid. Portuguese explorers solved this problem by taking to the sea: They sailed south along the West African coast and around the Cape of Good Hope.

But Columbus had a different idea: Why not sail west across the Atlantic instead of around the massive African continent? The young navigator’s logic was sound, but his math was faulty. He argued (incorrectly) that the circumference of the Earth was much smaller than his contemporaries believed it was; accordingly, he believed that the journey by boat from Europe to Asia should be not only possible, but comparatively easy via an as-yet undiscovered Northwest Passage . 

He presented his plan to officials in Portugal and England, but it was not until 1492 that he found a sympathetic audience: the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile .

Columbus wanted fame and fortune. Ferdinand and Isabella wanted the same, along with the opportunity to export Catholicism to lands across the globe. (Columbus, a devout Catholic, was equally enthusiastic about this possibility.)

Columbus’ contract with the Spanish rulers promised that he could keep 10 percent of whatever riches he found, along with a noble title and the governorship of any lands he should encounter.

Where Did Columbus' Ships, Niña, Pinta and Santa Maria, Land?

On August 3, 1492, Columbus and his crew set sail from Spain in three ships: the Niña , the Pinta and the Santa Maria . On October 12, the ships made landfall—not in the East Indies, as Columbus assumed, but on one of the Bahamian islands, likely San Salvador.

For months, Columbus sailed from island to island in what we now know as the Caribbean, looking for the “pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, and other objects and merchandise whatsoever” that he had promised to his Spanish patrons, but he did not find much. In January 1493, leaving several dozen men behind in a makeshift settlement on Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), he left for Spain.

He kept a detailed diary during his first voyage. Christopher Columbus’s journal was written between August 3, 1492, and November 6, 1492 and mentions everything from the wildlife he encountered, like dolphins and birds, to the weather to the moods of his crew. More troublingly, it also recorded his initial impressions of the local people and his argument for why they should be enslaved.

“They… brought us parrots and balls of cotton and spears and many other things, which they exchanged for the glass beads and hawks’ bells," he wrote. "They willingly traded everything they owned… They were well-built, with good bodies and handsome features… They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. They have no iron… They would make fine servants… With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want.”

Columbus gifted the journal to Isabella upon his return.

Christopher Columbus's Later Voyages

About six months later, in September 1493, Columbus returned to the Americas. He found the Hispaniola settlement destroyed and left his brothers Bartolomeo and Diego Columbus behind to rebuild, along with part of his ships’ crew and hundreds of enslaved indigenous people.

Then he headed west to continue his mostly fruitless search for gold and other goods. His group now included a large number of indigenous people the Europeans had enslaved. In lieu of the material riches he had promised the Spanish monarchs, he sent some 500 enslaved people to Queen Isabella. The queen was horrified—she believed that any people Columbus “discovered” were Spanish subjects who could not be enslaved—and she promptly and sternly returned the explorer’s gift.

In May 1498, Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic for the third time. He visited Trinidad and the South American mainland before returning to the ill-fated Hispaniola settlement, where the colonists had staged a bloody revolt against the Columbus brothers’ mismanagement and brutality. Conditions were so bad that Spanish authorities had to send a new governor to take over.

Meanwhile, the native Taino population, forced to search for gold and to work on plantations, was decimated (within 60 years after Columbus landed, only a few hundred of what may have been 250,000 Taino were left on their island). Christopher Columbus was arrested and returned to Spain in chains.

In 1502, cleared of the most serious charges but stripped of his noble titles, the aging Columbus persuaded the Spanish crown to pay for one last trip across the Atlantic. This time, Columbus made it all the way to Panama—just miles from the Pacific Ocean—where he had to abandon two of his four ships after damage from storms and hostile natives. Empty-handed, the explorer returned to Spain, where he died in 1506.

Legacy of Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus did not “discover” the Americas, nor was he even the first European to visit the “New World.” (Viking explorer Leif Erikson had sailed to Greenland and Newfoundland in the 11th century.)

However, his journey kicked off centuries of exploration and exploitation on the American continents. The Columbian Exchange transferred people, animals, food and disease across cultures. Old World wheat became an American food staple. African coffee and Asian sugar cane became cash crops for Latin America, while American foods like corn, tomatoes and potatoes were introduced into European diets. 

Today, Columbus has a controversial legacy —he is remembered as a daring and path-breaking explorer who transformed the New World, yet his actions also unleashed changes that would eventually devastate the native populations he and his fellow explorers encountered.

HISTORY Vault: Columbus the Lost Voyage

Ten years after his 1492 voyage, Columbus, awaiting the gallows on criminal charges in a Caribbean prison, plotted a treacherous final voyage to restore his reputation.

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Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer Christopher Columbus discovered the “New World” of the Americas on an expedition sponsored by King Ferdinand of Spain in 1492.

c. 1451-1506

Quick Facts

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Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer and navigator. In 1492, he sailed across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain in the Santa Maria , with the Pinta and the Niña ships alongside, hoping to find a new route to Asia. Instead, he and his crew landed on an island in present-day Bahamas—claiming it for Spain and mistakenly “discovering” the Americas. Between 1493 and 1504, he made three more voyages to the Caribbean and South America, believing until his death that he had found a shorter route to Asia. Columbus has been credited—and blamed—for opening up the Americas to European colonization.

FULL NAME: Cristoforo Colombo BORN: c. 1451 DIED: May 20, 1506 BIRTHPLACE: Genoa, Italy SPOUSE: Filipa Perestrelo (c. 1479-1484) CHILDREN: Diego and Fernando

Christopher Columbus, whose real name was Cristoforo Colombo, was born in 1451 in the Republic of Genoa, part of what is now Italy. He is believed to have been the son of Dominico Colombo and Susanna Fontanarossa and had four siblings: brothers Bartholomew, Giovanni, and Giacomo, and a sister named Bianchinetta. He was an apprentice in his father’s wool weaving business and studied sailing and mapmaking.

In his 20s, Columbus moved to Lisbon, Portugal, and later resettled in Spain, which remained his home base for the duration of his life.

Columbus first went to sea as a teenager, participating in several trading voyages in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. One such voyage, to the island of Khios, in modern-day Greece, brought him the closest he would ever come to Asia.

His first voyage into the Atlantic Ocean in 1476 nearly cost him his life, as the commercial fleet he was sailing with was attacked by French privateers off the coast of Portugal. His ship was burned, and Columbus had to swim to the Portuguese shore.

He made his way to Lisbon, where he eventually settled and married Filipa Perestrelo. The couple had one son, Diego, around 1480. His wife died when Diego was a young boy, and Columbus moved to Spain. He had a second son, Fernando, who was born out of wedlock in 1488 with Beatriz Enriquez de Arana.

After participating in several other expeditions to Africa, Columbus learned about the Atlantic currents that flow east and west from the Canary Islands.

The Asian islands near China and India were fabled for their spices and gold, making them an attractive destination for Europeans—but Muslim domination of the trade routes through the Middle East made travel eastward difficult.

Columbus devised a route to sail west across the Atlantic to reach Asia, believing it would be quicker and safer. He estimated the earth to be a sphere and the distance between the Canary Islands and Japan to be about 2,300 miles.

Many of Columbus’ contemporary nautical experts disagreed. They adhered to the (now known to be accurate) second-century BCE estimate of the Earth’s circumference at 25,000 miles, which made the actual distance between the Canary Islands and Japan about 12,200 statute miles. Despite their disagreement with Columbus on matters of distance, they concurred that a westward voyage from Europe would be an uninterrupted water route.

Columbus proposed a three-ship voyage of discovery across the Atlantic first to the Portuguese king, then to Genoa, and finally to Venice. He was rejected each time. In 1486, he went to the Spanish monarchy of Queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. Their focus was on a war with the Muslims, and their nautical experts were skeptical, so they initially rejected Columbus.

The idea, however, must have intrigued the monarchs, because they kept Columbus on a retainer. Columbus continued to lobby the royal court, and soon, the Spanish army captured the last Muslim stronghold in Granada in January 1492. Shortly thereafter, the monarchs agreed to finance his expedition.

In late August 1492, Columbus left Spain from the port of Palos de la Frontera. He was sailing with three ships: Columbus in the larger Santa Maria (a type of ship known as a carrack), with the Pinta and the Niña (both Portuguese-style caravels) alongside.

On October 12, 1492, after 36 days of sailing westward across the Atlantic, Columbus and several crewmen set foot on an island in present-day Bahamas, claiming it for Spain.

There, his crew encountered a timid but friendly group of natives who were open to trade with the sailors. They exchanged glass beads, cotton balls, parrots, and spears. The Europeans also noticed bits of gold the natives wore for adornment.

Columbus and his men continued their journey, visiting the islands of Cuba (which he thought was mainland China) and Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic, which Columbus thought might be Japan) and meeting with the leaders of the native population.

During this time, the Santa Maria was wrecked on a reef off the coast of Hispaniola. With the help of some islanders, Columbus’ men salvaged what they could and built the settlement Villa de la Navidad (“Christmas Town”) with lumber from the ship.

Thirty-nine men stayed behind to occupy the settlement. Convinced his exploration had reached Asia, he set sail for home with the two remaining ships. Returning to Spain in 1493, Columbus gave a glowing but somewhat exaggerated report and was warmly received by the royal court.

In 1493, Columbus took to the seas on his second expedition and explored more islands in the Caribbean Ocean. Upon arrival at Hispaniola, Columbus and his crew discovered the Navidad settlement had been destroyed with all the sailors massacred.

Spurning the wishes of the local queen, Columbus established a forced labor policy upon the native population to rebuild the settlement and explore for gold, believing it would be profitable. His efforts produced small amounts of gold and great hatred among the native population.

Before returning to Spain, Columbus left his brothers Bartholomew and Giacomo to govern the settlement on Hispaniola and sailed briefly around the larger Caribbean islands, further convincing himself he had discovered the outer islands of China.

It wasn’t until his third voyage that Columbus actually reached the South American mainland, exploring the Orinoco River in present-day Venezuela. By this time, conditions at the Hispaniola settlement had deteriorated to the point of near-mutiny, with settlers claiming they had been misled by Columbus’ claims of riches and complaining about the poor management of his brothers.

The Spanish Crown sent a royal official who arrested Columbus and stripped him of his authority. He returned to Spain in chains to face the royal court. The charges were later dropped, but Columbus lost his titles as governor of the Indies and, for a time, much of the riches made during his voyages.

After convincing King Ferdinand that one more voyage would bring the abundant riches promised, Columbus went on his fourth and final voyage across the Atlantic Ocean in 1502. This time he traveled along the eastern coast of Central America in an unsuccessful search for a route to the Indian Ocean.

A storm wrecked one of his ships, stranding the captain and his sailors on the island of Cuba. During this time, local islanders, tired of the Spaniards’ poor treatment and obsession with gold, refused to give them food.

In a spark of inspiration, Columbus consulted an almanac and devised a plan to “punish” the islanders by taking away the moon. On February 29, 1504, a lunar eclipse alarmed the natives enough to re-establish trade with the Spaniards. A rescue party finally arrived, sent by the royal governor of Hispaniola in July, and Columbus and his men were taken back to Spain in November 1504.

In the two remaining years of his life, Columbus struggled to recover his reputation. Although he did regain some of his riches in May 1505, his titles were never returned.

Columbus probably died of severe arthritis following an infection on May 20, 1506, in Valladolid, Spain. At the time of his death, he still believed he had discovered a shorter route to Asia.

There are questions about the location of his burial site. According to the BBC , Columbus’ remains moved at least three or four times over the course of 400 years—including from Valladolid to Seville, Spain, in 1509; then to Santo Domingo, in what is now the Dominican Republic, in 1537; then to Havana, Cuba, in 1795; and back to Seville in 1898. As a result, Seville and Santo Domingo have both laid claim to being Columbus’ true burial site. It is also possible his bones were mixed up with another person’s amid all of their travels.

In May 2014, Columbus made headlines as news broke that a team of archaeologists might have found the Santa Maria off the north coast of Haiti. Barry Clifford, the leader of this expedition, told the Independent newspaper that “all geographical, underwater topography and archaeological evidence strongly suggests this wreck is Columbus’ famous flagship the Santa Maria.”

After a thorough investigation by the U.N. agency UNESCO, it was determined the wreck dates from a later period and was located too far from shore to be the famed ship.

Columbus has been credited for opening up the Americas to European colonization—as well as blamed for the destruction of the native peoples of the islands he explored. Ultimately, he failed to find that what he set out for: a new route to Asia and the riches it promised.

In what is known as the Columbian Exchange, Columbus’ expeditions set in motion the widespread transfer of people, plants, animals, diseases, and cultures that greatly affected nearly every society on the planet.

The horse from Europe allowed Native American tribes in the Great Plains of North America to shift from a nomadic to a hunting lifestyle. Wheat from the Old World fast became a main food source for people in the Americas. Coffee from Africa and sugar cane from Asia became major cash crops for Latin American countries. And foods from the Americas, such as potatoes, tomatoes and corn, became staples for Europeans and helped increase their populations.

The Columbian Exchange also brought new diseases to both hemispheres, though the effects were greatest in the Americas. Smallpox from the Old World killed millions, decimating the Native American populations to mere fractions of their original numbers. This more than any other factor allowed for European domination of the Americas.

The overwhelming benefits of the Columbian Exchange went to the Europeans initially and eventually to the rest of the world. The Americas were forever altered, and the once vibrant cultures of the Indigenous civilizations were changed and lost, denying the world any complete understanding of their existence.

As more Italians began to immigrate to the United States and settle in major cities during the 19 th century, they were subject to religious and ethnic discrimination. This included a mass lynching of 11 Sicilian immigrants in 1891 in New Orleans.

Just one year after this horrific event, President Benjamin Harrison called for the first national observance of Columbus Day on October 12, 1892, to mark the 400 th anniversary of his arrival in the Americas. Italian-Americans saw this honorary act for Columbus as a way of gaining acceptance.

Colorado became the first state to officially observe Columbus Day in 1906 and, within five years, 14 other states followed. Thanks to a joint resolution of Congress, the day officially became a federal holiday in 1934 during the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt . In 1970, Congress declared the holiday would fall on the second Monday in October each year.

But as Columbus’ legacy—specifically, his exploration’s impacts on Indigenous civilizations—began to draw more criticism, more people chose not to take part. As of 2023, approximately 29 states no longer celebrate Columbus Day , and around 195 cities have renamed it or replaced with the alternative Indigenous Peoples Day. The latter isn’t an official holiday, but the federal government recognized its observance in 2022 and 2023. President Joe Biden called it “a day in honor of our diverse history and the Indigenous peoples who contribute to shaping this nation.”

One of the most notable cities to move away from celebrating Columbus Day in recent years is the state capital of Columbus, Ohio, which is named after the explorer. In 2018, Mayor Andrew Ginther announced the city would remain open on Columbus Day and instead celebrate a holiday on Veterans Day. In July 2020, the city also removed a 20-plus-foot metal statue of Columbus from the front of City Hall.

• I went to sea from the most tender age and have continued in a sea life to this day. Whoever gives himself up to this art wants to know the secrets of Nature here below. It is more than forty years that I have been thus engaged. Wherever any one has sailed, there I have sailed.
• Speaking of myself, little profit had I won from twenty years of service, during which I have served with so great labors and perils, for today I have no roof over my head in Castile; if I wish to sleep or eat, I have no place to which to go, save an inn or tavern, and most often, I lack the wherewithal to pay the score.
• They say that there is in that land an infinite amount of gold; and that the people wear corals on their heads and very large bracelets of coral on their feet and arms; and that with coral they adorn and inlay chairs and chests and tables.
• This island and all the others are very fertile to a limitless degree, and this island is extremely so. In it there are many harbors on the coast of the sea, beyond comparison with others that I know in Christendom, and many rivers, good and large, which is marvelous.
• Our Almighty God has shown me the highest favor, which, since David, he has not shown to anybody.
• Already the road is opened to gold and pearls, and it may surely be hoped that precious stones, spices, and a thousand other things, will also be found.
• I have now seen so much irregularity, that I have come to another conclusion respecting the earth, namely, that it is not round as they describe, but of the form of a pear.
• In all the countries visited by your Highnesses’ ships, I have caused a high cross to be fixed upon every headland and have proclaimed, to every nation that I have discovered, the lofty estate of your Highnesses and of your court in Spain.
• I ought to be judged as a captain sent from Spain to the Indies, to conquer a nation numerous and warlike, with customs and religions altogether different to ours.

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The Ages of Exploration

Christopher columbus, age of discovery.

Quick Facts:

He is credited for discovering the Americas in 1492, although we know today people were there long before him; his real achievement was that he opened the door for more exploration to a New World.

Name : Christopher Columbus [Kri-stə-fər] [Kə-luhm-bəs]

Birth/Death : 1451 - 1506

Nationality : Italian

Birthplace : Genoa, Italy

Christopher Columbus leaving Palos, Spain

Christopher Columbus aboard the "Santa Maria" leaving Palos, Spain on his first voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. The Mariners' Museum 1933.0746.000001

Introduction We know that In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue. But what did he actually discover? Christopher Columbus (also known as (Cristoforo Colombo [Italian]; Cristóbal Colón [Spanish]) was an Italian explorer credited with the “discovery” of the America’s. The purpose for his voyages was to find a passage to Asia by sailing west. Never actually accomplishing this mission, his explorations mostly included the Caribbean and parts of Central and South America, all of which were already inhabited by Native groups.

Biography Early Life Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, part of present-day Italy, in 1451. His parents’ names were Dominico Colombo and Susanna Fontanarossa. He had three brothers: Bartholomew, Giovanni, and Giacomo; and a sister named Bianchinetta. Christopher became an apprentice in his father’s wool weaving business, but he also studied mapmaking and sailing as well. He eventually left his father’s business to join the Genoese fleet and sail on the Mediterranean Sea. 1 After one of his ships wrecked off the coast of Portugal, he decided to remain there with his younger brother Bartholomew where he worked as a cartographer (mapmaker) and bookseller. Here, he married Doña Felipa Perestrello e Moniz and had two sons Diego and Fernando.

Christopher Columbus owned a copy of Marco Polo’s famous book, and it gave him a love for exploration. In the mid 15th century, Portugal was desperately trying to find a faster trade route to Asia. Exotic goods such as spices, ivory, silk, and gems were popular items of trade. However, Europeans often had to travel through the Middle East to reach Asia. At this time, Muslim nations imposed high taxes on European travels crossing through. 2 This made it both difficult and expensive to reach Asia. There were rumors from other sailors that Asia could be reached by sailing west. Hearing this, Christopher Columbus decided to try and make this revolutionary journey himself. First, he needed ships and supplies, which required money that he did not have. He went to King John of Portugal who turned him down. He then went to the rulers of England, and France. Each declined his request for funding. After seven years of trying, he was finally sponsored by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain.

Voyages Principal Voyage Columbus’ voyage departed in August of 1492 with 87 men sailing on three ships: the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María. Columbus commanded the Santa María, while the Niña was led by Vicente Yanez Pinzon and the Pinta by Martin Pinzon. 3 This was the first of his four trips. He headed west from Spain across the Atlantic Ocean. On October 12 land was sighted. He gave the first island he landed on the name San Salvador, although the native population called it Guanahani. 4 Columbus believed that he was in Asia, but was actually in the Caribbean. He even proposed that the island of Cuba was a part of China. Since he thought he was in the Indies, he called the native people “Indians.” In several letters he wrote back to Spain, he described the landscape and his encounters with the natives. He continued sailing throughout the Caribbean and named many islands he encountered after his ship, king, and queen: La Isla de Santa María de Concepción, Fernandina, and Isabella.

It is hard to determine specifically which islands Columbus visited on this voyage. His descriptions of the native peoples, geography, and plant life do give us some clues though. One place we do know he stopped was in present-day Haiti. He named the island Hispaniola. Hispaniola today includes both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. In January of 1493, Columbus sailed back to Europe to report what he found. Due to rough seas, he was forced to land in Portugal, an unfortunate event for Columbus. With relations between Spain and Portugal strained during this time, Ferdinand and Isabella suspected that Columbus was taking valuable information or maybe goods to Portugal, the country he had lived in for several years. Those who stood against Columbus would later use this as an argument against him. Eventually, Columbus was allowed to return to Spain bringing with him tobacco, turkey, and some new spices. He also brought with him several natives of the islands, of whom Queen Isabella grew very fond.

Subsequent Voyages Columbus took three other similar trips to this region. His second voyage in 1493 carried a large fleet with the intention of conquering the native populations and establishing colonies. At one point, the natives attacked and killed the settlers left at Fort Navidad. Over time the colonists enslaved many of the natives, sending some to Europe and using many to mine gold for the Spanish settlers in the Caribbean. The third trip was to explore more of the islands and mainland South America further. Columbus was appointed the governor of Hispaniola, but the colonists, upset with Columbus’ leadership appealed to the rulers of Spain, who sent a new governor: Francisco de Bobadilla. Columbus was taken prisoner on board a ship and sent back to Spain.

On his fourth and final journey west in 1502 Columbus’s goal was to find the “Strait of Malacca,” to try to find India. But a hurricane, then being denied entrance to Hispaniola, and then another storm made this an unfortunate trip. His ship was so badly damaged that he and his crew were stranded on Jamaica for two years until help from Hispaniola finally arrived. In 1504, Columbus and his men were taken back to Spain .

Later Years and Death Columbus reached Spain in November 1504. He was not in good health. He spent much of the last of his life writing letters to obtain the percentage of wealth overdue to be paid to him, and trying to re-attain his governorship status, but was continually denied both. Columbus died at Valladolid on May 20, 1506, due to illness and old age. Even until death, he still firmly believing that he had traveled to the eastern part of Asia.

Legacy Columbus never made it to Asia, nor did he truly discover America. His “re-discovery,” however, inspired a new era of exploration of the American continents by Europeans. Perhaps his greatest contribution was that his voyages opened an exchange of goods between Europe and the Americas both during and long after his journeys. 5 Despite modern criticism of his treatment of the native peoples there is no denying that his expeditions changed both Europe and America. Columbus day was made a federal holiday in 1971. It is recognized on the second Monday of October.

• Fergus Fleming, Off the Map: Tales of Endurance and Exploration (New York: Grove Press, 2004), 30.
• Fleming, Off the Map, 30
• William D. Phillips and Carla Rahn Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 142-143.
• Phillips and Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus, 155.
• Robin S. Doak, Christopher Columbus: Explorer of the New World (Minneapolis: Compass Point Books, 2005), 92.

Bibliography

Doak, Robin. Christopher Columbus: Explorer of the New World. Minneapolis: Compass Point Books, 2005.

Fleming, Fergus. Off the Map: Tales of Endurance and Exploration. New York: Grove Press, 2004.

Phillips, William D., and Carla Rahn Phillips. The Worlds of Christopher Columbus. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Map of Voyages

Click below to view an example of the explorer’s voyages. Use the tabs on the left to view either 1 or multiple journeys at a time, and click on the icons to learn more about the stops, sites, and activities along the way.

• Original "EXPLORATION through the AGES" site
• The Mariners' Educational Programs

Culture History

Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was an Italian explorer, navigator, and colonizer who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, opening the way for widespread European exploration and the eventual conquest of the Americas by Europeans. His expeditions, sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, were the first European contact with the Caribbean, Central America, and South America.

Early Life and Background

Christopher Columbus’s early life and background are shrouded in some mystery, and historians have had to piece together fragments of information to create a comprehensive understanding of the explorer’s formative years.

Born in the Republic of Genoa, which is part of present-day Italy, between August 25 and October 31, 1451, Columbus was named Cristoforo Colombo. Little is known about his childhood, family, or education. The lack of concrete details has led to various speculations and theories about his early life.

It is believed that Columbus belonged to a working-class family. His father, Domenico Colombo, was a wool weaver, and his mother, Susanna Fontanarossa, likely managed the household. The family lived in the bustling maritime city of Genoa, a hub of trade and commerce.

Despite the modest background, Columbus displayed an early fascination with the sea. Growing up in a maritime city, he would have been exposed to the bustling activity of the port, sparking his interest in navigation and exploration. Some historians suggest that Columbus might have received basic education, possibly in mathematics and cartography, which would have been essential for a career in navigation.

At a young age, Columbus embarked on a seafaring life. He gained practical experience in navigation and maritime trade, likely working on ships that sailed the Mediterranean Sea. This hands-on experience would later prove crucial for his ambitious plans of reaching Asia by sailing westward.

One significant influence on Columbus’s thinking was his exposure to classical and medieval geographical knowledge. He studied the works of ancient scholars like Ptolemy, Strabo, and Marco Polo, absorbing their ideas about the size and geography of the Earth. Columbus became convinced that it was possible to reach Asia by sailing westward, challenging the prevailing belief that the journey eastward was the only viable route.

In the late 15th century, Europe was captivated by the idea of finding new trade routes to Asia. The Ottoman Empire had closed off traditional overland routes, leading to a quest for alternative pathways to the lucrative markets of the East. Columbus, with his bold idea of sailing westward, saw an opportunity to find a direct route to Asia, potentially opening up new trade possibilities.

Despite his innovative thinking, Columbus faced skepticism and rejection when he presented his plans to various European courts. The maritime experts of the time were unconvinced, and many considered his proposals impractical. It was only through persistence and determination that Columbus secured the support he needed.

In 1485, Columbus sought the backing of the Portuguese king, John II. However, his proposal was rejected, and he faced disappointment once again. Undeterred, he turned his attention to Spain, where he encountered challenges in gaining support from the Spanish monarchs, Isabella I and Ferdinand II. It took several years of negotiations and persistence before he finally gained the royal endorsement for his ambitious venture.

On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain, with three ships: the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Niña. This marked the beginning of a journey that would change the course of history. The voyage aimed not only to find a new route to Asia but also to potentially discover unknown lands.

Columbus’s early life and background, characterized by a modest upbringing and a keen interest in navigation, laid the foundation for his pivotal role in the Age of Exploration. His journey into the unknown would not only alter his own destiny but also reshape the world’s understanding of geography and interconnectedness. The explorer’s determination and vision would set in motion a series of events that had profound consequences for the future of exploration and global relations.

Maritime Career

Christopher Columbus’s maritime career was marked by a combination of practical experience, navigational expertise, and an unyielding determination to pursue his ambitious vision of reaching Asia by sailing westward. His journey from an apprentice in the maritime trade to a renowned explorer reveals the challenges and opportunities of seafaring life in the late 15th century.

In his early years, Columbus gained practical maritime experience by working on ships that sailed the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean was a bustling trade route, and young Columbus likely absorbed invaluable knowledge about navigation, ship handling, and the intricacies of maritime trade. This hands-on experience laid the groundwork for his later endeavors and fueled his passion for exploration.

Columbus’s maritime career in the Mediterranean provided him with exposure to diverse cultures, trade practices, and navigation techniques. This exposure would prove beneficial when he later sought support for his westward expedition. The navigator’s time in the Mediterranean, a melting pot of civilizations, contributed to his broader understanding of the world and its interconnectedness.

As Columbus honed his practical skills at sea, he also delved into theoretical aspects of navigation and geography. He studied the works of classical and medieval scholars, including Ptolemy, whose ideas influenced his thinking about the size and shape of the Earth. Columbus embraced the notion that a westward route could lead to Asia, challenging conventional beliefs and setting the stage for his audacious proposal.

Despite his growing expertise, Columbus faced challenges when he presented his westward voyage proposal to maritime experts and European monarchs. The prevailing view among experts was that the journey to Asia should be pursued by sailing eastward, around Africa. Columbus’s unconventional idea encountered skepticism and rejection, highlighting the resistance to change within the maritime community.

Undeterred by initial setbacks, Columbus persistently sought support for his visionary plan. In 1485, he approached the Portuguese king, John II, hoping to secure backing for his westward expedition. However, his proposal was rejected, leading Columbus to continue his quest for support elsewhere. This period of seeking patronage was a testament to his determination and belief in the feasibility of his ambitious journey.

Columbus’s fortunes changed when he turned his attention to Spain, a country with a maritime tradition and a growing interest in exploration. After several years of negotiations and overcoming bureaucratic hurdles, he secured the support of Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II of Spain. On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail from Palos de la Frontera with three ships, embarking on a historic journey that would redefine the known world.

The voyage, fraught with challenges such as crew dissent, navigation difficulties, and the psychological strain of venturing into uncharted waters, eventually led to a momentous discovery. On October 12, 1492, land was sighted, and Columbus had reached what is now known as the Bahamas. This encounter marked the first direct European contact with the Americas, a pivotal moment in history.

Columbus continued his explorations, visiting various islands in the Caribbean, including Cuba and Hispaniola. His interactions with the indigenous populations varied, ranging from peaceful encounters to conflicts. The explorer believed he had reached the outskirts of Asia, and this misconception persisted even as he made subsequent voyages in 1493, 1498, and 1502.

Despite the significance of his discoveries, Columbus’s maritime career was not without controversy. Accusations of mismanagement and mistreatment of the colonists in the newly discovered lands led to his arrest in 1500. Although he was later released, his reputation suffered, and he faced financial difficulties. The explorer’s later voyages did not bring the riches he had hoped for, and he struggled to secure the recognition and rewards he believed he deserved.

Christopher Columbus’s maritime career, marked by a blend of practical experience, theoretical knowledge, and tenacity, played a pivotal role in shaping the course of history. His willingness to challenge conventional wisdom and pursue an unconventional route opened the door to new possibilities and laid the foundation for subsequent European exploration and colonization in the Americas. While his legacy is complex and debated, there is no denying the transformative impact of his maritime endeavors on the interconnected world of the late 15th century.

Motivations and Goals

Christopher Columbus’s motivations and goals were deeply rooted in his desire to find a westward route to Asia, driven by a combination of personal ambition, geographical theories, and the prevailing spirit of exploration in the late 15th century.

One of the primary motivations behind Columbus’s quest was the economic potential associated with finding a direct route to the lucrative markets of Asia. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire controlled traditional overland trade routes to Asia, making access to valuable goods such as spices, silks, and precious metals challenging for European powers. Columbus envisioned that a westward sea route could bypass these obstacles and provide a more direct path to the riches of the East, offering a competitive advantage in the lucrative spice trade.

Columbus’s economic motivations were intertwined with his personal ambitions. He sought not only wealth but also recognition and status. Born into a working-class family in Genoa, Columbus aspired to elevate his social standing. The prospect of discovering new lands and establishing trade routes appealed to his entrepreneurial spirit and offered the potential for personal glory and financial gain.

In addition to economic and personal motives, Columbus was deeply influenced by his interpretation of geographical theories prevalent in his time. He studied the works of ancient scholars such as Ptolemy, whose calculations of the Earth’s circumference and size provided a foundation for Columbus’s own ideas. However, Columbus mistakenly underestimated the Earth’s size, believing that the journey to Asia via a westward route was more feasible than it actually was.

Columbus’s understanding of geography was shaped by a combination of accurate and inaccurate information. While he correctly recognized that the Earth was round, he miscalculated its size, leading him to believe that Asia was closer to Europe than it actually was. This miscalculation fueled his confidence in the feasibility of a westward expedition.

The prevailing spirit of exploration in Europe during the late 15th century also played a crucial role in shaping Columbus’s goals. The Renaissance era witnessed a renewed interest in classical learning, scientific inquiry, and a sense of curiosity about the world. Explorers and scholars sought to expand knowledge, challenge existing beliefs, and push the boundaries of what was known. Columbus, deeply immersed in this intellectual and cultural milieu, was influenced by the collective excitement surrounding the prospect of new discoveries.

Columbus’s goals, therefore, extended beyond economic gain and personal glory. He saw himself as part of a larger movement that aimed to expand the known world, unravel its mysteries, and contribute to the intellectual and cultural advancements of the Renaissance. His vision of finding a westward route to Asia was not merely a pursuit of material wealth but also a quest for knowledge and the advancement of European civilization.

The explorer’s quest for sponsorship and support reflects the challenges he faced in convincing monarchs and maritime experts of the feasibility of his plan. Columbus approached various European courts, including the Portuguese and Spanish, seeking patronage for his westward expedition. His persistence and persuasion eventually led to the support of Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II of Spain, marking a turning point in his journey.

On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail from Spain with three ships: the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Niña. His voyage, fraught with uncertainties and challenges, eventually led to the discovery of the Americas. On October 12, 1492, Columbus reached the islands of the Bahamas, marking the beginning of a new chapter in world history.

As Columbus explored the Caribbean and subsequent voyages, he remained steadfast in his belief that he had reached the outskirts of Asia. Despite the geographical misconceptions and the absence of the expected wealth of Asia, Columbus continued to pursue his goals of exploration, hoping to discover a passage to the riches of the East.

While Columbus’s voyages did not achieve his intended goal of reaching Asia, they had profound and far-reaching consequences. The encounter between the Old World and the New World initiated an era of transatlantic exchange, shaping the course of history, culture, and commerce. Columbus’s motivations and goals, rooted in economic ambitions, personal aspirations, and the spirit of exploration, played a pivotal role in the larger narrative of European expansion and the interconnectedness of the globalized world.

Voyages to the Americas

Christopher Columbus’s voyages to the Americas represent a monumental chapter in the history of exploration, opening a new era of transatlantic encounters and shaping the course of global history. The explorer’s four voyages between 1492 and 1504 not only marked the first direct European contact with the Americas but also initiated a complex period of exploration, colonization, and cultural exchange.

Columbus’s first voyage, which commenced on August 3, 1492, from Palos de la Frontera, Spain, included three ships: the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Niña. His initial goal was to find a westward route to Asia, but on October 12, 1492, land was sighted. This historic moment marked Columbus’s arrival in the Americas, specifically the islands of the Bahamas. The explorer, however, remained convinced that he had reached the outskirts of Asia, and subsequent explorations took him to various islands in the Caribbean, including Cuba and Hispaniola.

The encounters with the indigenous populations during the first voyage varied. Some interactions were peaceful, while others involved misunderstandings and conflicts. Columbus, driven by his belief in reaching Asia, engaged with the local peoples and initiated the process of European exploration and colonization in the Americas.

Upon returning to Spain in 1493, Columbus was hailed as a hero. His successful return sparked a wave of enthusiasm for further exploration, and he embarked on his second voyage in September 1493. This time, Columbus led a larger fleet of 17 ships, including settlers, livestock, and supplies. The second voyage aimed to establish a permanent settlement in the Caribbean and explore more territories.

Columbus revisited the islands he had encountered on his first voyage and explored additional regions, including Puerto Rico and Jamaica. The explorer’s interactions with the indigenous populations became more complex as Spanish settlers sought to establish a presence in the newly discovered lands. The establishment of the first Spanish colony, La Isabela, on Hispaniola marked a significant step in the European colonization of the Americas.

Subsequent voyages in 1498 and 1502 further expanded Columbus’s exploration of the Caribbean and Central America. During the third voyage, he encountered the mainland of South America, exploring the coast of present-day Venezuela. However, Columbus’s continued belief that he had reached Asia persisted, and he did not fully comprehend the magnitude of his discoveries.

The explorer’s later voyages faced increasing challenges. Accusations of mismanagement, mistreatment of colonists, and strained relations with both Spanish authorities and settlers led to his arrest in 1500. Although Columbus was later released, his reputation suffered, and he faced financial difficulties. Despite these setbacks, he undertook his fourth and final voyage in 1502, exploring the coasts of Central America, Honduras, and Panama.

Columbus’s voyages had profound consequences for both the Old World and the New World. The encounter between Europeans and indigenous peoples initiated a process of cultural exchange, trade, and migration that transformed both continents. The Columbian Exchange, named after Christopher Columbus, facilitated the transfer of plants, animals, technologies, and diseases between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, altering ecosystems and societies on a global scale.

The impact of Columbus’s voyages on the indigenous populations was significant and often detrimental. The arrival of Europeans introduced new diseases, such as smallpox and measles, for which the native peoples had no immunity. The resulting epidemics led to devastating population losses. Additionally, the European quest for wealth and resources led to the exploitation and subjugation of indigenous communities.

Columbus’s voyages also marked the beginning of European colonization in the Americas. The establishment of Spanish colonies, followed by other European powers, led to the conquest and exploitation of vast territories. The search for gold and other valuable resources fueled European expansion, shaping the economic and social structures of the colonies.

The explorer’s legacy is complex and has been a subject of historical debate. While Columbus is celebrated for opening the Americas to European exploration and paving the way for subsequent encounters, his actions and their consequences have also been scrutinized. The impact of colonization on indigenous peoples, the introduction of slavery, and the exploitation of resources are among the darker aspects of this historical period.

In modern times, there has been a reassessment of Columbus’s legacy. Some argue for a more nuanced understanding that acknowledges the complexity of historical events and their multifaceted consequences. Indigenous perspectives, often marginalized in traditional historical narratives, highlight the need to recognize the diverse experiences and resilience of Native American communities.

Christopher Columbus’s voyages to the Americas were a watershed moment in world history. They initiated a new phase of global interconnectedness, leading to the Columbian Exchange and shaping the course of exploration, colonization, and cultural exchange. While the impact of these voyages was profound, it is essential to critically examine the consequences and legacies, considering the perspectives of all those affected by the encounter between the Old World and the New World.

Discovery of the Americas

Christopher Columbus’s discovery of the Americas in 1492 was a pivotal moment that reshaped the course of history, connecting the previously isolated continents of Europe and the Americas and initiating an era of exploration, conquest, and cultural exchange. Columbus’s journey, fueled by a desire to find a westward route to Asia, led to the first direct contact between Europeans and the indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Columbus’s expedition began on August 3, 1492, when he set sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain, with three ships: the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Niña. His ambitious goal was to reach Asia by sailing westward, bypassing the traditional overland routes controlled by the Ottoman Empire. The explorer’s plan, rooted in a combination of maritime experience, theoretical knowledge, and determination, was met with skepticism and rejection from several European monarchs and maritime experts.

After a challenging journey across the Atlantic Ocean, marked by uncertainty, crew dissent, and navigational challenges, land was finally sighted on October 12, 1492. This historic moment occurred on an island in the present-day Bahamas, although Columbus initially believed he had reached the outer islands of Asia. The encounter between the Old World and the New World had begun.

Columbus’s discovery of the Americas had profound consequences for both continents. It initiated the Columbian Exchange, a complex web of biological, cultural, and economic exchanges between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The introduction of new plants, animals, technologies, and diseases transformed ecosystems and societies on a global scale.

The explorer continued his exploration of the Caribbean, visiting islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola during his first voyage. His interactions with the indigenous peoples varied, ranging from initial exchanges of gifts and curiosity to more complex encounters as Spanish settlers sought to establish a presence in the newly discovered lands.

Upon returning to Spain in 1493, Columbus was hailed as a hero. His successful journey sparked enthusiasm for further exploration, and he embarked on subsequent voyages in 1493, 1498, and 1502. These voyages expanded the European understanding of the Americas, exploring new territories and encountering diverse cultures.

During his second voyage, Columbus established the first Spanish colony, La Isabela, on Hispaniola. This marked the beginning of European colonization in the Americas. The establishment of colonies brought forth a clash of civilizations, as Europeans sought to impose their ways on indigenous peoples, leading to conflicts and changes in the social, economic, and political landscapes.

Columbus’s voyages also had unintended consequences for the indigenous populations, including the introduction of new diseases for which they had no immunity. The resulting epidemics had devastating effects, causing significant population declines and altering the demographic landscape of the Americas.

The explorer’s third voyage in 1498 took him to the South American mainland, where he explored the coast of present-day Venezuela. Despite these discoveries, Columbus remained convinced that he had reached the outskirts of Asia. His vision was colored by the prevailing geographical theories of the time, and he did not fully grasp the magnitude of his accomplishments.

By the time of his fourth and final voyage in 1502, Columbus faced increasing challenges and setbacks. Accusations of mismanagement, mistreatment of colonists, and strained relations with Spanish authorities tarnished his reputation. Despite these difficulties, he continued exploring the coasts of Central America, Honduras, and Panama.

Columbus’s discovery of the Americas set in motion a period of European exploration and expansion that had far-reaching consequences. The encounter between the Old World and the New World had profound effects on trade, culture, and the exchange of ideas. The influx of precious metals, particularly gold and silver, from the Americas fueled economic changes in Europe and contributed to the rise of powerful nation-states.

The explorer’s legacy, however, is complex and controversial. While Columbus is often celebrated for his role in opening the Americas to European exploration, his actions and their consequences have been critically examined. The impact on indigenous populations, the introduction of slavery, and the exploitation of resources are among the darker aspects of this historical period.

In recent times, there has been a reevaluation of Columbus’s legacy, with a focus on acknowledging the diverse experiences and perspectives of those affected by the encounter. Indigenous voices, often marginalized in traditional historical narratives, highlight the need for a more inclusive understanding of the consequences of Columbus’s discovery.

Christopher Columbus’s journey to the Americas was a watershed moment that bridged continents and reshaped the world. The encounter between Europe and the Americas had profound and lasting effects, laying the groundwork for centuries of exploration, colonization, and the complex interweaving of cultures across the Atlantic. The legacy of Columbus’s discovery continues to be a subject of debate, prompting reflections on the broader impact and implications of this historic event.

Interactions with Indigenous Peoples

Christopher Columbus’s interactions with the indigenous peoples of the Americas during his voyages were complex, multifaceted, and marked by a cultural collision that had profound consequences for both European colonizers and Native American communities. These interactions, ranging from initial encounters to subsequent conflicts and exchanges, played a crucial role in shaping the course of history in the wake of Columbus’s arrival in the New World.

Upon reaching the Bahamas on October 12, 1492, Columbus and his crew encountered the Taíno people, who inhabited the islands of the Caribbean. The initial interactions were characterized by curiosity and mutual fascination. The Taíno, unfamiliar with European technology and weaponry, perceived the newcomers as beings with extraordinary abilities. In turn, Columbus and his crew, eager to establish friendly relations, engaged in exchanges of gifts and gestures to communicate goodwill.

Despite these seemingly peaceful beginnings, the cultural differences between the Europeans and the indigenous peoples set the stage for a complex and often tumultuous relationship. The Europeans, driven by a desire for wealth and resources, sought to establish a presence in the newly discovered lands. This colonial ambition clashed with the social structures, customs, and values of the indigenous societies, leading to misunderstandings and conflicts.

As Columbus continued his explorations, visiting islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola, the interactions with the indigenous populations became more intricate. The explorer’s encounters with different groups of Native Americans varied, reflecting the diversity of cultures and societies across the Americas.

In his journal, Columbus described the indigenous peoples he encountered as “innocent” and “without knowledge of evil.” However, the explorer’s perceptions were filtered through the lens of his own cultural biases, and he often viewed the indigenous societies through a Eurocentric perspective. Columbus and subsequent European colonizers underestimated the complexity and sophistication of Native American cultures.

Columbus’s voyages also marked the beginning of the Columbian Exchange, a process that facilitated the transfer of plants, animals, technologies, and ideas between the Old World and the New World. While this exchange had transformative effects on both continents, it also had negative consequences, including the introduction of new diseases to which the indigenous populations had no immunity.

The impact of diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza was devastating for Native American communities. Epidemics swept through the Americas, causing significant population declines and social upheaval. The loss of lives and disruptions to traditional ways of life had profound and long-lasting consequences for the indigenous peoples.

As European colonization progressed, conflicts between the colonizers and indigenous populations escalated. The quest for gold, land, and other resources led to the exploitation and subjugation of Native American communities. Spanish settlers, following Columbus’s example, established encomiendas—forced labor systems that subjected indigenous people to harsh conditions.

In some instances, the Europeans sought to convert the indigenous populations to Christianity. The imposition of European cultural and religious practices, coupled with the forced labor systems, contributed to a cycle of oppression and resistance. Native American societies faced significant challenges as they grappled with the social, economic, and cultural changes brought about by European colonization.

Resistance to European domination was not uncommon among indigenous peoples. Various tribes and communities mounted efforts to defend their lands and preserve their ways of life. While some resisted through armed conflict, others sought diplomatic means to negotiate with the European colonizers. The complexity of these interactions is evident in the diverse responses of different indigenous groups.

Columbus’s legacy is fraught with controversy, and the impact of his interactions with indigenous peoples continues to be a subject of historical debate. While some argue that Columbus’s arrival initiated a process of exploitation, oppression, and cultural destruction, others emphasize the agency and resilience of Native American communities. The historical narrative is increasingly being reframed to incorporate indigenous perspectives, acknowledging the diversity of experiences and the ongoing challenges faced by indigenous peoples.

In contemporary times, there is a growing recognition of the need to center indigenous voices in the telling of history. Efforts are underway to amplify the narratives of Native American communities and acknowledge the enduring impact of colonization on their cultures, languages, and traditions. This shift in perspective seeks to foster a more inclusive understanding of the consequences of Columbus’s interactions with the indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Controversies and Criticisms

Christopher Columbus’s legacy is rife with controversies and criticisms that have grown in prominence as historical perspectives have evolved. While traditionally celebrated for his role in opening the Americas to European exploration, Columbus’s actions and their consequences have come under intense scrutiny in recent years. The controversies surrounding Columbus encompass issues of exploitation, violence, cultural imperialism, and the enduring impact of European colonization on indigenous peoples.

One of the primary criticisms directed at Columbus revolves around the treatment of the indigenous populations he encountered. The explorer’s quest for wealth and resources, driven by the prevailing economic motivations of the time, led to the exploitation and oppression of Native American communities. Columbus and subsequent European colonizers implemented encomiendas, forced labor systems that subjected indigenous people to harsh conditions and contributed to the erosion of their traditional ways of life.

The introduction of European diseases to which the indigenous populations had no immunity further exacerbated the impact of colonization. Epidemics of smallpox, measles, and other diseases swept through the Americas, causing significant population declines and social disruption. The loss of lives and the destabilization of Native American societies had enduring consequences that shaped the course of history in the Americas.

Columbus’s interactions with indigenous peoples also included efforts to impose European cultural and religious practices. The imposition of Christianity, often accompanied by coercion and force, aimed to assimilate Native American communities into European ways of life. This cultural imperialism, coupled with the exploitation of labor and resources, contributed to the erosion of indigenous cultures and traditions.

In addition to the direct impact on indigenous populations, Columbus’s legacy is linked to the larger historical narrative of European colonization and the transatlantic slave trade. While Columbus himself did not initiate the slave trade, his voyages set in motion a chain of events that led to the forced migration of millions of Africans to the Americas. The economic exploitation of both indigenous and African populations contributed to the establishment of European colonies built on the backs of enslaved peoples.

Controversies surrounding Columbus extend to his own actions and leadership. Accusations of mismanagement, mistreatment of colonists, and strained relations with Spanish authorities led to his arrest in 1500. Although he was later released, Columbus’s reputation suffered, and he faced financial difficulties in his later years. The explorer’s ambitions and actions, while celebrated in some historical narratives, have been critiqued for their negative impact on both the individuals directly involved and the broader historical trajectory.

The complexities of Columbus’s legacy have prompted a reevaluation of his place in history. Indigenous voices, often marginalized in traditional historical narratives, emphasize the need to acknowledge the diverse experiences of Native American communities. Efforts are underway to amplify these perspectives and challenge the Eurocentric narrative that has traditionally dominated discussions of Columbus and his voyages.

In recent years, there has been a growing movement to reconsider Columbus Day, a holiday that traditionally celebrates the explorer’s arrival in the Americas. Advocates for change argue that the celebration perpetuates a romanticized and sanitized view of Columbus, ignoring the harsh realities of colonization and its impact on indigenous peoples. Some jurisdictions have opted to rename the holiday Indigenous Peoples’ Day, honoring the resilience and contributions of Native American communities.

Statues and monuments commemorating Columbus have also become focal points of controversy. In various locations, calls to remove or reevaluate such monuments have gained momentum, reflecting a broader societal reckoning with historical figures whose actions are now seen in a more critical light. The debate over monuments dedicated to Columbus underscores the ongoing conversations about how societies choose to remember and commemorate historical figures and events.

The controversies surrounding Columbus’s legacy have also sparked discussions about history education. Calls for a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of Columbus’s actions and their consequences have led to a reexamination of history curricula. Some argue for a more inclusive approach that incorporates indigenous perspectives, highlights the impact of colonization, and fosters a critical understanding of historical events.

It is essential to note that the controversies surrounding Columbus’s legacy do not diminish the significance of the broader historical processes set in motion by his voyages. The encounter between the Old World and the New World initiated an era of exploration, trade, and cultural exchange that shaped the course of global history. However, acknowledging the negative consequences of Columbus’s actions is an important step toward a more honest and comprehensive understanding of this historical period.

Later Life and Legacy

Christopher Columbus’s later life and legacy are marked by a complex interplay of historical impact, controversies, and enduring debates. While his voyages opened a new era of transatlantic exchange and exploration, Columbus faced challenges, controversies, and a changing reputation in the latter part of his life and posthumously. Additionally, his legacy has been a subject of ongoing scrutiny, with diverse perspectives shaping the narratives surrounding his contributions and the consequences of European colonization.

In the aftermath of Columbus’s historic voyages, his later life was characterized by a mix of triumphs and tribulations. Despite being hailed as a hero upon his return to Spain after the first voyage in 1492, Columbus encountered difficulties in securing the rewards he believed he was due. Disputes over his promised share of profits, disagreements with Spanish authorities, and accusations of mismanagement led to strained relations.

In 1500, Columbus faced arrest and imprisonment in Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic) following complaints about his leadership and treatment of colonists. Although he was eventually released and allowed to return to Spain, his reputation suffered, and he struggled to regain the royal favor he had enjoyed earlier. Columbus made a fourth and final voyage in 1502, exploring the coasts of Central America, but the challenges continued, and he faced additional accusations and hardships.

Columbus’s later years were marked by financial difficulties and health problems. Despite his significant contributions to world history, he died in relative obscurity on May 20, 1506, in Valladolid, Spain. His death marked the end of a chapter in the Age of Exploration, but it was only the beginning of the evolving legacy and controversies surrounding his name.

The legacy of Christopher Columbus is complex and multifaceted. While traditionally celebrated as the explorer who opened the Americas to European exploration, Columbus’s legacy has been subjected to increasing scrutiny, especially in light of the negative consequences of European colonization. The controversies surrounding Columbus encompass issues of exploitation, violence, cultural imperialism, and the enduring impact on indigenous peoples.

One aspect of Columbus’s legacy is his role as a symbol of European exploration and discovery. His voyages inaugurated a new era of transatlantic exchange and connected the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, leading to the Columbian Exchange. The exchange facilitated the transfer of plants, animals, technologies, and ideas between the Old World and the New World, contributing to the globalization of cultures and ecosystems.

Columbus’s legacy also includes his impact on navigation and geography. Despite his miscalculations regarding the size of the Earth, his voyages demonstrated the feasibility of sailing across the Atlantic Ocean. The knowledge gained from his expeditions contributed to improved navigation and laid the groundwork for subsequent exploration and trade routes.

However, the positive aspects of Columbus’s legacy are juxtaposed with the controversies and criticisms that surround his name. The treatment of indigenous populations during the age of colonization, initiated by Columbus’s voyages, has become a focal point of historical critique. The exploitation, forced labor, diseases, and cultural disruption caused by European colonization had devastating consequences for Native American communities.

In recent years, there has been a reevaluation of Columbus’s place in history, with a growing acknowledgment of the negative impact of his actions. Indigenous perspectives, often marginalized in traditional historical narratives, emphasize the need to recognize the enduring consequences of colonization on their cultures, languages, and traditions. Efforts are underway to amplify these voices and foster a more inclusive understanding of history.

Controversies surrounding Columbus’s legacy extend to the celebrations dedicated to him, most notably Columbus Day. Traditionally observed on the second Monday of October in the United States, the holiday has faced criticism for perpetuating a romanticized and sanitized view of Columbus. Calls to rename or replace Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples’ Day have gained traction, seeking to honor the resilience and contributions of Native American communities.

Statues and monuments commemorating Columbus have become focal points of controversy and debate. In various locations, calls to remove or reevaluate such monuments have gained momentum, reflecting a broader societal reckoning with historical figures whose actions are now seen in a more critical light. The debate over monuments dedicated to Columbus underscores the ongoing conversations about how societies choose to remember and commemorate historical figures and events.

The complexities of Columbus’s legacy prompt broader discussions about history education. Calls for a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of Columbus’s actions and their consequences have led to a reexamination of history curricula. Some argue for a more inclusive approach that incorporates indigenous perspectives, highlights the impact of colonization, and fosters a critical understanding of historical events.

Historical Context

To understand Christopher Columbus’s voyages and their historical significance, it is crucial to consider the broader historical context of the late 15th century. The Age of Exploration, also known as the Age of Discovery, was a period marked by European exploration and expansion that spanned from the late 15th century to the early 17th century. Several factors contributed to the onset of this era, setting the stage for Columbus’s historic journey.

One key catalyst was the desire for direct access to the lucrative spice trade of Asia. During this time, spices such as pepper, cinnamon, and cloves were highly sought after for their culinary and preservative properties. The established trade routes, controlled by the Ottoman Empire, made these spices expensive and difficult to obtain for European powers. As a result, there was a pressing economic incentive to find alternative trade routes that would bypass the Ottoman-controlled territories.

The Renaissance, a cultural and intellectual movement that began in Italy in the 14th century, played a pivotal role in shaping the mindset of the Age of Exploration. The Renaissance was characterized by a renewed interest in classical learning, scientific inquiry, and a sense of curiosity about the world. Scholars, navigators, and adventurers sought to expand knowledge, challenge existing beliefs, and push the boundaries of what was known. This intellectual atmosphere fostered an environment conducive to exploration and discovery.

Advancements in navigation technology and techniques also contributed to the feasibility of long-distance sea voyages. The astrolabe and quadrant, instruments used for celestial navigation, enabled mariners to determine their latitude at sea. The development of more accurate maps and navigational charts, influenced by the works of ancient scholars like Ptolemy, provided sailors with better tools for charting their courses. These technological advancements increased the confidence of explorers in undertaking ambitious voyages into uncharted waters.

Against this backdrop, Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator and explorer, presented his ambitious proposal to reach Asia by sailing westward. Columbus’s plan was grounded in a combination of practical experience, theoretical knowledge, and a miscalculation of the Earth’s size. He believed that Asia could be reached by sailing westward across the Atlantic Ocean, a notion that challenged the prevailing belief that the journey to Asia should be pursued by sailing eastward around Africa.

Despite facing initial skepticism and rejections from various European courts, Columbus eventually secured the patronage of Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II of Spain. On August 3, 1492, he set sail from Palos de la Frontera with three ships: the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Niña. This marked the beginning of a journey that would lead to the first direct European contact with the Americas.

Columbus’s first landfall on October 12, 1492, in the Bahamas was a momentous event that had far-reaching consequences. The encounter between the Old World and the New World initiated an era of transatlantic exchange, exploration, and colonization. Columbus’s voyages opened the door to further exploration and exploitation of the Americas by European powers, shaping the course of history in ways that would have profound and enduring impacts.

The historical context of the late 15th century, characterized by economic motivations, intellectual curiosity, technological advancements, and a quest for alternative trade routes, provides the backdrop for understanding Columbus’s voyages. While the explorer’s arrival in the Americas is a pivotal moment in history, it is essential to recognize the broader forces and dynamics that shaped the Age of Exploration and set the stage for the interconnected global history that followed.

Columbus Day Controversy

The observance of Columbus Day has been a source of controversy and debate, reflecting evolving perspectives on the legacy of Christopher Columbus and the broader consequences of European colonization in the Americas. Celebrated on the second Monday of October in the United States, Columbus Day traditionally commemorates Columbus’s arrival in the Americas on October 12, 1492. However, this observance has faced increasing criticism for perpetuating a romanticized and sanitized view of Columbus, prompting calls for reevaluation and change.

One primary point of contention surrounding Columbus Day revolves around the negative consequences of European contact with the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Critics argue that celebrating Columbus ignores the darker aspects of his legacy, including the exploitation, forced labor, and diseases that had devastating effects on Native American communities. The introduction of European diseases, such as smallpox and measles, for which the indigenous populations had no immunity, resulted in epidemics that caused significant population declines and cultural disruptions.

Efforts to reframe the narrative have gained momentum, emphasizing the need to acknowledge the enduring consequences of colonization on Native American cultures, languages, and traditions. Indigenous perspectives, often marginalized in traditional historical narratives, stress the importance of recognizing the diverse experiences of Native American communities during and after the age of Columbus.

In response to these concerns, there has been a growing movement to rename or replace Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples’ Day. This alternative observance seeks to honor the resilience and contributions of Native American communities while acknowledging the complex history of European colonization. Several jurisdictions across the United States have adopted Indigenous Peoples’ Day, reflecting a shift toward a more inclusive and nuanced understanding of history.

Statues and monuments commemorating Christopher Columbus have also become focal points of controversy. In various locations, calls to remove or reevaluate such monuments have gained momentum, reflecting a broader societal reckoning with historical figures whose actions are now seen in a more critical light. The debate over monuments dedicated to Columbus underscores the ongoing conversations about how societies choose to remember and commemorate historical figures and events.

The controversy surrounding Columbus Day is not limited to the United States. In other parts of the Americas and beyond, there are similar debates about how to remember and interpret Columbus’s legacy. Some argue for a more critical examination of historical figures and events, emphasizing the need to confront uncomfortable truths about colonization and its impact on indigenous peoples.

Historical education has also become a focal point in the Columbus Day controversy. Calls for a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of Columbus’s actions and their consequences have led to a reexamination of history curricula. Advocates argue for a more inclusive approach that incorporates indigenous perspectives, highlights the impact of colonization, and fosters a critical understanding of historical events.

While the controversy surrounding Columbus Day reflects a broader societal reevaluation of historical figures and events, it also raises questions about the selective nature of historical memory. The debate prompts individuals and communities to confront uncomfortable truths about the consequences of European colonization, challenging traditional narratives that may have overlooked or romanticized the darker aspects of history.

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History Resources

Columbus reports on his first voyage, 1493

A spotlight on a primary source by christopher columbus.

On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail from Spain to find an all-water route to Asia. On October 12, more than two months later, Columbus landed on an island in the Bahamas that he called San Salvador; the natives called it Guanahani.

For nearly five months, Columbus explored the Caribbean, particularly the islands of Juana (Cuba) and Hispaniola (Santo Domingo), before returning to Spain. He left thirty-nine men to build a settlement called La Navidad in present-day Haiti. He also kidnapped several Native Americans (between ten and twenty-five) to take back to Spain—only eight survived. Columbus brought back small amounts of gold as well as native birds and plants to show the richness of the continent he believed to be Asia.

When Columbus arrived back in Spain on March 15, 1493, he immediately wrote a letter announcing his discoveries to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who had helped finance his trip. The letter was written in Spanish and sent to Rome, where it was printed in Latin by Stephan Plannck. Plannck mistakenly left Queen Isabella’s name out of the pamphlet’s introduction but quickly realized his error and reprinted the pamphlet a few days later. The copy shown here is the second, corrected edition of the pamphlet.

The Latin printing of this letter announced the existence of the American continent throughout Europe. “I discovered many islands inhabited by numerous people. I took possession of all of them for our most fortunate King by making public proclamation and unfurling his standard, no one making any resistance,” Columbus wrote.

In addition to announcing his momentous discovery, Columbus’s letter also provides observations of the native people’s culture and lack of weapons, noting that “they are destitute of arms, which are entirely unknown to them, and for which they are not adapted; not on account of any bodily deformity, for they are well made, but because they are timid and full of terror.” Writing that the natives are “fearful and timid . . . guileless and honest,” Columbus declares that the land could easily be conquered by Spain, and the natives “might become Christians and inclined to love our King and Queen and Princes and all the people of Spain.”

An English translation of this document is available.

I have determined to write you this letter to inform you of everything that has been done and discovered in this voyage of mine.

On the thirty-third day after leaving Cadiz I came into the Indian Sea, where I discovered many islands inhabited by numerous people. I took possession of all of them for our most fortunate King by making public proclamation and unfurling his standard, no one making any resistance. The island called Juana, as well as the others in its neighborhood, is exceedingly fertile. It has numerous harbors on all sides, very safe and wide, above comparison with any I have ever seen. Through it flow many very broad and health-giving rivers; and there are in it numerous very lofty mountains. All these island are very beautiful, and of quite different shapes; easy to be traversed, and full of the greatest variety of trees reaching to the stars. . . .

In the island, which I have said before was called Hispana , there are very lofty and beautiful mountains, great farms, groves and fields, most fertile both for cultivation and for pasturage, and well adapted for constructing buildings. The convenience of the harbors in this island, and the excellence of the rivers, in volume and salubrity, surpass human belief, unless on should see them. In it the trees, pasture-lands and fruits different much from those of Juana. Besides, this Hispana abounds in various kinds of species, gold and metals. The inhabitants . . . are all, as I said before, unprovided with any sort of iron, and they are destitute of arms, which are entirely unknown to them, and for which they are not adapted; not on account of any bodily deformity, for they are well made, but because they are timid and full of terror. . . . But when they see that they are safe, and all fear is banished, they are very guileless and honest, and very liberal of all they have. No one refuses the asker anything that he possesses; on the contrary they themselves invite us to ask for it. They manifest the greatest affection towards all of us, exchanging valuable things for trifles, content with the very least thing or nothing at all. . . . I gave them many beautiful and pleasing things, which I had brought with me, for no return whatever, in order to win their affection, and that they might become Christians and inclined to love our King and Queen and Princes and all the people of Spain; and that they might be eager to search for and gather and give to us what they abound in and we greatly need.

Questions for Discussion

Read the document introduction and transcript in order to answer these questions.

• Columbus described the Natives he first encountered as “timid and full of fear.” Why did he then capture some Natives and bring them aboard his ships?
• Imagine the thoughts of the Europeans as they first saw land in the “New World.” What do you think would have been their most immediate impression? Explain your answer.
• Which of the items Columbus described would have been of most interest to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella? Why?
• Why did Columbus describe the islands and their inhabitants in great detail?
• It is said that this voyage opened the period of the “Columbian Exchange.” Why do you think that term has been attached to this period of time?

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The First New World Voyage of Christopher Columbus (1492)

European Exploration of the Americas

Spencer Arnold/Getty Images

• Ph.D., Spanish, Ohio State University
• M.A., Spanish, University of Montana
• B.A., Spanish, Penn State University

How was the first voyage of Columbus to the New World undertaken, and what was its legacy? Having convinced the King and Queen of Spain to finance his voyage, Christopher Columbus departed mainland Spain on August 3, 1492. He quickly made port in the Canary Islands for a final restocking and left there on September 6. He was in command of three ships: the Pinta, the Niña, and the Santa María. Although Columbus was in overall command, the Pinta was captained by Martín Alonso Pinzón and the Niña by Vicente Yañez Pinzón.

First Landfall: San Salvador

On October 12, Rodrigo de Triana, a sailor aboard the Pinta, first sighted land. Columbus himself later claimed that he had seen a sort of light or aura before Triana did, allowing him to keep the reward he had promised to give to whoever spotted land first. The land turned out to be a small island in the present-day Bahamas. Columbus named the island San Salvador, although he remarked in his journal that the natives referred to it as Guanahani. There is some debate over which island was Columbus’ first stop; most experts believe it to be San Salvador, Samana Cay, Plana Cays or Grand Turk Island.

Second Landfall: Cuba

Columbus explored five islands in the modern-day Bahamas before he made it to Cuba. He reached Cuba on October 28, making landfall at Bariay, a harbor near the eastern tip of the island. Thinking he had found China, he sent two men to investigate. They were Rodrigo de Jerez and Luis de Torres, a converted Jew who spoke Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic in addition to Spanish. Columbus had brought him as an interpreter. The two men failed in their mission to find the Emperor of China but did visit a native Taíno village. There they were the first to observe the smoking of tobacco, a habit which they promptly picked up.

Third Landfall: Hispaniola

Leaving Cuba, Columbus made landfall on the Island of Hispaniola on December 5. Indigenous people called it Haití but Columbus referred to it as La Española, a name which was later changed to Hispaniola when Latin texts were written about the discovery. On December 25, the Santa María ran aground and had to be abandoned. Columbus himself took over as captain of the Niña, as the Pinta had become separated from the other two ships. Negotiating with the local chieftain Guacanagari, Columbus arranged to leave 39 of his men behind in a small settlement, named La Navidad .

Return to Spain

On January 6, the Pinta arrived, and the ships were reunited: they set out for Spain on January 16. The ships arrived in Lisbon, Portugal, on March 4, returning to Spain shortly after that.

Historical Importance of Columbus' First Voyage

In retrospect, it is somewhat surprising that what is today considered one of the most important voyages in history was something of a failure at the time. Columbus had promised to find a new, quicker route to the lucrative Chinese trade markets and he failed miserably. Instead of holds full of Chinese silks and spices, he returned with some trinkets and a few bedraggled Indigenous people from Hispaniola. Some 10 more had perished on the voyage. Also, he had lost the largest of the three ships entrusted to him.

Columbus actually considered the Indigenous people his greatest find. He thought that a new trade of enslaved people could make his discoveries lucrative. Columbus was hugely disappointed a few years later when Queen Isabela, after careful thought, decided not to open the New World to the trading of enslaved people.

Columbus never believed that he had found something new. He maintained, to his dying day, that the lands he discovered were indeed part of the known Far East. In spite of the failure of the first expedition to find spices or gold, a much larger second expedition was approved, perhaps in part due to Columbus’ skills as a salesman.

Herring, Hubert. A History of Latin America From the Beginnings to the Present. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962

Thomas, Hugh. "Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan." 1st edition, Random House, June 1, 2004.

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• Amerigo Vespucci, Explorer and Navigator
• Where Are the Remains of Christopher Columbus?
• Biography of Diego Velazquez de Cuellar, Conquistador
• La Navidad: First European Settlement in the Americas
• The Florida Expeditions of Ponce de Leon
• A Brief History of the Age of Exploration
• Did Christopher Columbus Actually Discover America?
• Biography of Bartolomé de Las Casas, Spanish Colonist
• Biography and Legacy of Ferdinand Magellan

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Christopher Columbus: A Latter-day Saint Perspective

Arnold k. garr, later voyages: columbus as governor.

Arnold K. Garr,  Christopher Columbus A Latter-Day Saint Perspective,  (Provo, Utah: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 1992), 53–62.

The world owes most to the men, great and small, who in the name of truth have dared to challenge tradition. . . . Yet, when [Columbus] challenged the geographical tradition of his day, he was scorned by compatriots; and even when he had discovered America, jealousy and misunderstanding landed him in prison and left him brokenhearted. Nevertheless, the great era of geographical exploration and discovery may well be dated from Columbus.

—John A. Widtsoe

Christopher Columbus was certainly at a high point in his life when he returned from his first voyage to the Americas and was honored by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. He remained with the royal court at Barcelona for several weeks thereafter. During this time he advised the crown on diplomatic matters, made plans for a second trans-atlantic voyage, interviewed people who wished to sail to the New World, and attended royal social functions (Morison 2:14).

One of the most significant and memorable events that the Admiral attended at this time was the baptism of the six native Americans he had brought back with him from the Indies. Ferdinand, Isabella, and their son, the Infante Don Juan, acted as god-parents to the new converts. They named one Indian after the king, another after Don Juan, and a third, the Admiral’s interpreter, they christened Don Diego Colon. “Don Juan” became a part of the royal household, where he was “well behaved and circumspect” according to Oviedo (Morison 2:14). Unfortunately, Don Juan died just two years later. The other five natives returned to the Americas with Columbus on his second voyage.

Another notable function that the Admiral attended during the interlude between the first and second voyages was a magnificent banquet given by Don Pedro Gonzales de Men-doza, Archbishop of Toledo and Grand Cardinal of Spain. Mendoza was a powerful and loyal supporter of the crown, and was probably the most important man in Spain after the king. On this night the Cardinal had Columbus seated at the place of honor and treated him with ceremonial custom usually reserved for royalty; this meant that every dish served to the Admiral was first tasted by Mendoza, himself, and was then passed, with a cover, to Christopher.

It was also at this auspicious occasion that the oft-repeated “egg incident” was supposed to have taken place. This anecdote is perhaps the best-known tale told about Columbus. As the story goes, during the party a jealous Spanish nobleman, attempting to minimize Christopher’s accomplishments, approached the Admiral, and said: “Senor Cristobal, even if you had not undertaken this great enterprise, we should not have lacked a [Spaniard] who would have made the same discovery that you did” (Morison 2:15).

Columbus said nothing in reply, but instead placed an egg on the table and challenged all the men present to make the egg stand on its end by itself, without the aid of salt, crumbs or any other support. When everyone failed and the egg returned to Christopher, he tapped it on the table slightly crushing one end of the shell, then stood it on the crushed end with no props. The message of this simple demonstration was that when someone shows you how to break beyond self-imposed limits, anyone else can copy the great feat, but it takes a person of vision, courage, and determination to do something that has never before been done (Morison 2:15).

This story was originally printed in Historia del Mondo Nuovo (1565), the first Italian history of the New World. The American writer Washington Irving claimed that the “universal popularity of this anecdote is proof of its merit,” but others have concluded that the account might be apocryphal (Morison 2:15). Latter-day Saints would be interested to know that Joseph Smith was aware of the story and applied it to himself. In speaking of the insignificance of man’s opinions relative to God’s wisdom, the Prophet said, “I break the ground; / lead the way like Columbus when he was invited to a banquet where he. . . . took an egg and. . . . [illustrated] that when he had once shown the way to the new world nothing was easier than to follow it” (Smith, Joseph 304; emphasis added).

The Second Voyage: Columbus the Christ-bearer

Despite the regal lifestyle he enjoyed while residing at court, the Admiral could no longer stay at Barcelona because the monarchs were anxious for him to embark on another voyage to the New World. Inasmuch as Columbus was at his height of glory, he experienced no difficulty, whatsoever, in financing his second voyage. In fact, his second fleet was much larger than the Santa Maria, Nina, and Pinta, which had set sail in 1492. In 1493 the Admiral commanded 17 vessels, carrying between 1,200 and 1,500 male colonists. He also took a six months’ supply of food and provisions. No European nation had ever before ventured to sponsor a colonizing effort of such magnitude (Morison 2:49–50). It was a truly impressive fleet that sailed in 1493 on Columbus’ second voyage to the Americas.

The objectives of this second expedition were several: convert the natives; colonize Hispaniola; further explore the Caribbean (in hopes of reaching Asia’s mainland); and search for gold. While much has been said of the imperial and financial considerations of the journey, the Admiral’s desire to spread Christianity among the natives was one of his preeminent purposes. By starting the process that would eventually lead to the conversion of vast numbers of native Americans, Columbus was, in fact, partially fulfilling yet another Book of Mormon prophecy. Latter-day Saint scholars have always acknowledged Columbus’ role in the fulfillment of the familiar prophecy of America’s discovery in 1 Nephi 13:12, but have frequently overlooked the vital role he played in fulfilling yet another notable ancient prophecy as he and the Spanish priests who accompanied him on the second voyage were the first Christian missionaries known to have brought the Bible to the inhabitants of the Americas, thus initiating the fulfillment of the prophetic vision given in 1 Nephi 13:38. Nephi, in describing this vision, said: “I beheld the remnant of the seed of my brethren, and also the book of the Lamb of God [the Bible], which had proceeded forth from the mouth of the Jew, that it came forth from the Gentiles unto the remnant of the seed of my brethren.”

Evidence that spreading the faith was foremost in Columbus’ mind can be found in a letter he wrote to the monarchs prior to the trip, wherein he outlined his recommendations for colonizing Hispaniola. He suggested to the sovereigns “that there be a church [in the new colony] and priests or friars [be sent] for the . . . observance of divine worship and the conversion of the Indians” (Thacher 3:101). The Admiral also suggested “that one per cent of all the gold obtained be taken for the building of the churches and . . . for the maintenance of the priests or friars” (Ibid 105).

Christopher also expressed concern, and rightfully so, that too many colonists would become consumed with searching for gold and hence would soon become derelict in all other responsibilities. He therefore recommended “that the search for gold should be forbidden during some period of the year so that an opportunity be given for the performance of other necessary and profitable labors” (Thacher 3:108). He also suggested “that no one be allowed the privilege of getting gold except those who settle there and build houses for their dwelling-place in the town” (Ibid 101).

The monarchs’ prime interest in this expedition was also of a religious nature, as evidenced by their formal instructions to Christopher, dated 29 May 1493. Acknowledging Columbus’ opinion that the natives were “very ripe to be converted,” Ferdinand and Isabella directed him “that by all ways and means he strive and endeavor to win over the inhabitants of the said Islands and Mainland to be converted” to Christianity (Morison, Journals, 203–04). The crown further commanded Christopher to take with him “the learned father, Fray [Bernardo] Buil, together with [four] other Religiosos” for the express purpose that the Indians would be “carefully taught the principles of Our Holy Faith . . . and [that the Admiral himself] provide for their instruction as best he can” (Ibid 204). A further charge from the king and queen concerning the natives was that the Europeans “treat the said Indians very well and lovingly and abstain from doing them any injury, arranging that both peoples hold much conversation and intimacy, each serving the others to the best of their ability” (Ibid.)

The fleet sailed from Cadiz, Spain, on 25 September 1493, stopping briefly at the Canaries, and crossing the ocean in a remarkable 21 days (Morison 2:65). Arriving in the Indies on 3 November, Columbus called all hands to the quarter-deck to offer prayers and sing hymns, “thanking God for His mercy in letting them reach that land” so quickly and safely (Ferdinand 110–11). The Admiral named the site of their first layover after his flagship, the Mariagalante. Enroute to Hispaniola, the fleet also passed Dominica, Guadeloupe, Nevis, St. Kitts, St. Croix, the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, among others.

When the fleet finally landed at La Navidad, where Columbus had left 39 of his men from the previous voyage, they found ghastly evidence of the fate that had befallen these original settlers. No buildings were visible, and no surviving sailors were to be found. A short search revealed that the Spaniards’ fort was now only a charred shell. All the settlers had been killed by neighboring natives, who had rebelled because of mistreatment by the Europeans (Morison 2:91–92).

Saddened but undaunted by this discovery, Columbus abandoned La Navidad and sailed eastward in search of a more suitable place for permanent colonization. Finally, on 2 January 1494, he decided to settle on the northern coast of Hispaniola, in today’s Dominican Republic, about 28 miles west of present-day Puerto Plata. Columbus named the site Isabela, which became the first planned European settlement in America (Deagan, “La Isabela,” 40–53). Anxious to continue exploring and to find gold in order to justify the expense of this huge expedition, Columbus left this colony in the care of a council headed by his brother, Don Diego, and on 24 April set sail in search of treasure and new lands.

While Christopher was away from Isabela for the next five months, he explored Cuba and discovered the island of Jamaica. When he returned to Isabela on 29 September 1494, he came back to a colonial nightmare (Morison, Journals, 404). The Admiral found the island in a state of turmoil, a result of his subordinates’ frustration over governing the native Americans as well as the self-serving European settlers, many of whom acted viciously toward the Indians, and maliciously toward their own leaders. Though Columbus may have been the greatest navigator in the world, he was not a very successful governor. He and his brothers could control neither internal rebellion among the settlers nor external fighting with the Indians. Las Casas once said that “the Archangel Gabriel would have been hard put to govern those first colonists of Hispaniola” (Brigham, Life, 31). One of the problems was that the Europeans never found enough gold to satisfy their unrealistic expectations. Because of this lack of revenue, the Admiral succumbed to pressure to provide a profitable export to Spain, and therefore consented to the establishment of forced labor and enslavement of native Americans (Morison 2:168–69). This was one of the worst decisions Columbus made in his entire life.

Columbus as Governor: A Turning Point

This decision also seems to have been a turning point in Columbus’ career. There is very little evidence in the following few years that he received the same kind of divine guidance and inspiration that he had been so blessed with earlier in his life. During the years he served as governor he appeared to be walking by his own light and stumbled along the way. He made several unfortunate decisions and almost everything seemed to go wrong for him. Modern-day revelation teaches that “the heavens withdraw themselves” when men “exercise unrighteous dominion” over others (D&C 121:37, 39).

Whatever the case, Columbus spent the entire year of 1495 struggling to establish and maintain peace and order on the island of Hispaniola. Then early in 1496 he made plans to return to Spain. By this time he had given up on the idea of establishing Isabela as the main settlement of Hispaniola. Consequently, he gave instructions to his brother, Bartholomew, to look for a new site to serve as the capital of the island and then sailed for Europe on 10 March 1496. While he was gone, Bartholomew founded the city of Santo Domingo on the southeast coast of Hispaniola (Morison 2:177,181–82). Within a few years Isabela died out as a colony but Santo Domingo lived on and today owns the distinction of being the oldest European City in the western hemisphere (Pons 2:615).

The Third Voyage: Columbus in Chains

The Admiral’s third voyage to the New World took place between 1498 and 1500. This time he commanded a fleet of six ships, and his primary objective was to find a continent and, hopefully, a motherlode of gold. He departed on 30 May and sailed a more southerly course than on his previous voyages. On 13 July the fleet ran into the doldrums and was stalled at sea for eight days, not reaching the Americas until 31 July 1496 (Morison 2:230–43, 246).

The first body of land they sighted was an island that Columbus named Trinidad; however, they did not go ashore at that time. Instead, they sailed through the night and, on 1 August 1498, the Admiral caught his first glimpse of the American mainland, the continent of South America. After sailing through the “Serpent’s Mouth,” the strait between Trinidad and the continent, Columbus crossed the Gulf of Paria and finally anchored in a harbor on the northeast coast of present-day Venezuela (Morison 2:246–54). When Christopher and his crew went ashore at Venezuela, they became the first Europeans known to history to set foot on the mainland of South America. Columbus would never set foot on the North American continent; the first known European to set foot in what is now the United States was a former shipmate on Columbus’ second voyage—Ponce de Leon went ashore at Florida in 1513 (Ibid 2:56).

It took Columbus a little over three weeks to work his way from Venezuela to Hispaniola, where he anchored on 31 August 1498 at Santo Domingo, the new capital of the island. The Admiral had hoped to rest and recuperate from his difficult voyage when he arrived at Hispaniola; instead, he found the settlement and the island in a state of chaos and rebellion. The Spanish settlers complained that they could not find enough gold, they did not have enough food from Spain, and that the foods indigenous to the Americas were inedible. They also resented the strict rule of the Admiral’s brother, Bartholomew, who was, after all, not a Spaniard but a foreigner from Genoa. A man by the name of Francisco Roldan appeared to be the leader of the rebellion (Taviani, The Great Adventure, 204–05).

Instead of dealing firmly with the rebels, Columbus, who was tired and sick, tried to pacify them by giving them land grants and allowing them to enslave native Americans. However, many settlers remained discontented and returned to Spain and spread hateful stories about Christopher, accusing him of incompetent leadership (Morison 2:299–301).

In the summer of 1500 the Spanish Monarchs sent Francisco de Bobadilla to Hispaniola to investigate. Bobadilla was given full authority to do whatever he deemed necessary to bring order to the island. An over-zealous government appointee, Bobadilla took full advantage of his new powers on arriving at Hispaniola. He ordered Columbus and his two brothers sent back to Spain in chains to stand trial (Phillips and Phillips 225). Thus, Christopher’s third return to Spain contrasted strikingly with the glorious homecoming he experienced after the first voyage, only seven years previous. This third voyage found him in the depths of humiliation and shame, and the experience was definitely a low point in Columbus’ life.

The king and queen were shocked when they learned that their Admiral had been humiliated and sent home in shackles. They had Columbus and his brothers released, but they also appointed Nicolas de Ovando to replace Christopher as governor. Ovando sailed to Hispaniola with 30 ships and approximately 2,500 colonists, soldiers, and sailors (Morison 2:310–11, 314). Columbus remained in Spain and began work on his Book of Prophecies.

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