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'It's catastrophic': Fiji's colossal tourism sector devastated by coronavirus

Tourism employs about 150,000 people in the Pacific nation, but travel restrictions mean the work and the money are drying up

On a typical evening Suva’s Holiday Inn is packed with guests from all over the world. But tonight, the dining room of the hotel, one of the most popular in Fiji’s capital, which normally buzzes with the dinner rush, stands empty,

Looking lost amid the empty tables is waiter Samuela Yavala.

“I’ve been in the industry for a good 19 years and I have never seen anything like this,” he says.

Before the coronavirus crisis, Yavala could make FJ$300 (£106) a week after overtime and tips, which is relatively high for country with a minimum wage of FJ$2.68 an hour for unskilled workers. Since the pandemic, his hours have been reduced and his salary halved and Yavala wonders how he will support his elderly parents. His biggest fear is being laid off completely.

“I don’t know what I’ll do,” he says. A similar scene is being played out across Fiji’s tourism hotspots as the coronavirus bites into the Pacific island’s most important industry. As jobs are slashed and incomes dry up, people like Yavala face a desperate future.

Fiji has so far recorded 16 confirmed Covid-19 cases with no deaths so far. The government responded swiftly and firmly to the outbreak, closing the country’s main airport in Nadi on 25 March, six days after Fiji announced its first confirmed case, which was brought into the country by a flight attendant.

Since then, the entire country has to abide by a curfew from 8pm to 5am and police and the military are out enforcing the coronavirus laws.

The country is braced for a deadly outbreak that would quickly stretch its health system to breaking point. But even if the worst-case health scenario is avoided, a devastating economic impact looks unavoidable .

Tourism contributes nearly 40% to Fiji’s gross domestic product – about FJ$2bn (AU$1.4bn) – and directly or indirectly employs over 150,000 people in various industries. Last year, Fiji had more tourists coming into the country (894,000) than residents living in it (roughly 880,000). The bulk of its tourists come from nearby Australia (41%) and New Zealand (23%), which like many countries around the world have banned international travel.

Fiji Airways, the country’s national airline, has grounded 95% of flights amid travel restrictions and border closures around the world and the Fiji Hotel and Tourism Association (FHTA) says a staggering 279 hotels and resorts have closed since the outbreak reached Fiji, causing more than 25,000 to lose their jobs, particularly in the western part of the country’s main island, the hub of the industry and the gateway to many resort islands.

“This will be catastrophic,” says Tony Whitton, managing director of Rosie Holidays and Ahura Resorts. The Rosie Group plans to reduce its workforce from about 600 workers to 40 essential staff in the coming weeks.

“My view is that it will take one year at least – so until the end of 2021 – just for the industry to recover and we won’t see growth until at least 2022,” he said, adding that any recovery in the industry will depend on when source markets such as Australia and New Zealand open their borders again.

The knock-on effect of these job cuts will be enormous. Many of those employed in the tourism sector support dependents in a country where the wages are low, cost of living is high, and government support is minimal.

The wages Joape Anare earned while working at the Tanoa Group of Hotels in Nadi supported his parents and put his two sisters through school.

He was laid off due to the coronavirus crisis and has been has forced to move back to his village on Beqa Island, located about 45km south of Suva, to survive from subsistence farming.

“Handing in my uniform before leaving was really hard and indeed an emotional experience. My work was my life. I don’t know whether I will be returning to this field again,” he said.

Fiji’s minister of economy and attorney-general Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum announced a FJ$1bn economic stimulus budget in late March to assist businesses and workers in the current climate, which allows some workers to access up to FJ$1,000 from their superannuation funds, with government topping up payments for ineligible applicants.

But Nigel Skeggs, director of The Rhum-Ba, a restaurant bar on Denarau Island in Nadi, has urged the government to reduce taxes to help businesses stay open, saying Fiji’s tourism operators had been struggling for some time with the burden of keeping Fiji’s economy afloat.

“Our top-heavy tax system has taken all domestic liquidity away and left operators with minimal profit and significantly reduced cashflows - for most small businesses this means little to no savings,” he said.

The Reserve Bank of Fiji expects the country’s economy to slide into a recession in 2020 after nearly 10 consecutive years of growth.

According to the World Bank’s recently released East, Asia and the Pacific economic update, the severity of the contraction will depend on how long the Covid-19 crisis lasts.

Professor Stephen Pratt, head of the tourism school at the University of the South Pacific says that the crisis was an opportunity for operators to reimagine what Fiji’s industry will resemble in a post-coronavirus world.

“It’s a bit of a paradigm shift and it’s a chance for the industry and academics to say what sort of tourism do we want going forward,” he said.

“I think there will be some fundamental changes in not just Fiji but the source markets as well. International politics are involved so there might be things like safe countries or blocs of countries that have their own agreements for travellers.

“Tourism is a people to people business and fundamentally goes against social distancing,” he said. “We are watching closely.”

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The Future of Fiji’s Tourism Industry Is Green

Under turquoise seas a unique cornucopia teeming with marine life awaits those lucky enough to holiday in South Pacific nation Fiji.  

Visitors here are welcomed with open arms. Tourism is vital to the lives and livelihoods of everyone in Fiji. Now rebounding strongly after the pandemic forced a virtual shutdown, Fiji’s tourism industry faces a critical challenge: To help drive widespread sustainable prosperity it must both leverage and protect its unique environment, while equipping itself to withstand the worsening ravages of climate change.  

“The only way we can usher a new phase of tourism development is if sustainability is at the heart of it – for the sake of our future generations,” said Fiji’s Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Tourism and Civil Aviation, Hon. Viliame Gavoka.  

Tourism-reliant economies like Fiji were among the world’s hardest hit by the pandemic. In a nation of more than 900,000 people, over 200,000 Fijians lost their jobs. The economic impacts were stark: In 2020, Fiji’s real gross domestic product (GDP) growth plummeted to a decline of 17 percent .  

Before the pandemic tourism operators Maureen and Rodney Simpson had a thriving business employing 10 people in Savusavu, a resort on Fiji’s second biggest island Vanua Levu. When international borders closed life immediately became a lot more precarious for them and their workers.  

“We had zero income,” Maureen Simpson said. “When tourism re-opened, we renamed ourselves from Dive for Life to Dive Savusavu, basically to advertise Savusavu.  

Reopening and the return of tourists has helped drive a much-needed economic recovery in Fiji. GDP growth is estimated at 15.1 percent in 2022 and to be 5.4 percent in 2023 . The Fiji Bureau of Statistics reported that Fiji’s visitor arrivals for December 2022 surpassed pre-Covid levels with 75,580 visitors landing in Fiji or 102 percent of 2019.  

Now, tourists are returning in good numbers, staying longer, and spending more per day compared to 2019 according to early post-COVID findings of the International Visitors’ Survey, which IFC also supports. And when people come to Fiji for a holiday, they like to return: the healthy bounce is backed by repeat visitors who are half of all arrivals.  

Reefs and Business Come Back To Life  

In Savusavu it’s 10 in the morning and the floating bures dotting the crystal waters in front of the picturesque Koro Sun Resort are still locked up.  

It might seem quiet, but happily, the tourists are back. The latest arrivals are resting after travelling over 16,000 kilometers and 30 hours from the United Kingdom to experience unique diving in Fiji’s “soft coral capital”. Vanua Levu is known for stunning beaches and waters carpeted with jaw-dropping arrays of coral and sea life. Tourists travel there from all over the world to snorkel and dive.  

Close by, the Simpsons are busy directing their workers to check oxygen tanks, dive equipment and snorkeling gear. Like most other tourism operators, they have been busy since borders reopened in 2021.  

“We noticed during these two years when we were closed, our reefs have really come back to life. We also have turtles, hammerhead sharks and even whales around the dive spots – we respect them, and they respect us. And this has been the highlight of our diving,” Maureen Simpson said.  

Promise of a Sustainable Path  

Vanua Levu is part of a long-term vision in Fiji to develop a more diversified and sustainable tourism sector. 

IFC is working with people and groups from across the industry to assist. This includes enabling sustainable, green and climate resilient investments and helping the Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation (MCTA) to develop standards for tourism businesses. IFC is also supporting the MTCA to develop the National Sustainable Tourism Framework. This framework will provide a blueprint and strategy for an inclusive, resilient, and sustainable tourism industry. 

It comes amid a sharp focus on the benefits sustainable development has to offer. Targeting $3 billion Fijian dollars in visitor expenditure by next year, Tourism Fiji’s Corporate Plan for 2022-2024 urges “a strong focus on conserving the special environment that attracts our visitors.”  

Fiji Hotel and Tourism Association CEO, Fantasha Lockington said the renewed focus on sustainability being driven at national level represented a positive shift as “it was previously delivered on far smaller scales by individual businesses. Additionally, that Fiji’s more resilient reefs (to coral bleaching and their remarkable ability to renew themselves) is being recognized globally by marine scientists and ecologists.”   

IFC Country Manager for Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and the Pacific Islands, Judith Green said: “The challenges faced in Fiji and the Pacific are similar to my home country, Jamaica, and the Caribbean Islands. We need to make sure that development, which is needed in the islands, is sustainable and that that it does not harm the environment.” 

Friend and foe  

Like many around the world who live by the ocean, the sea is a critical source of income and food for Fijian islanders. And amid the harmful impacts of climate change, it can also be the greatest threat to their survival.  

Fiji is one of the most world’s most vulnerable nations to climate change and climate-related disasters. People there face a myriad of tipping points from rising sea levels and coastal erosion to depleted fisheries and more frequent and ferocious extreme weather events.

The Simpsons have experienced devastation before. Rodney Simpson says cyclone Winston in 2016 – one of the most severe cyclones to ever hit the South Pacific - damaged 90 per cent of the reefs located five minutes away.  

They saw the coral and ocean regenerate after the onslaught and recognize that their business can play an important role in helping to protect the precious local nature for generations to come. Twice a week, Dive Savusavu hosts a coral and mangrove planting program for children to teach them the importance of conservation.  

It’s just one element of how their business is playing a sustainable role in their local community. Another is by training hundreds of local youths as divers, helping to drive local employment in an environmentally friendly industry.  

With significant numbers of visitors now returning, the Simpsons say it is critical that more is done to protect the natural assets that attract the lifeblood of the economy.  

“If we don't take putting strict measures to protect the reefs, what is going to happen is that we won't have any more reef in future,” said Rodney Simpson.  

“As we much as we need visitors, we must also be mindful to keep our oceans healthy for our future,” he said.

Published on 17 th March 2023

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Paradise Threatened: Fiji’s War Against Climate Change

The South Pacific nation faces major environmental challenges, from the destruction of coral reefs to rising sea levels. At least one resort is asking tourists to help.

An aerial view of the shore line of Kadavu Island in Fiji. Credit... Asanka Brendon Ratnayake for The New York Times

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By Ken Belson

• Oct. 24, 2018

Between the international airport in Nadi, Fiji, and the capital city of Suva, the coastal road on the island of Viti Levu is lined with resorts and clogged with tour buses. It’s a route I took several times this spring when I visited friends in Suva, a bustling port city where cruise ships drop anchor year-round and deposit thousands of tourists.

The steady stream of hulking ships is emblematic of Fiji’s popularity, and a major source of income. But the country’s reliance on tourism, combined with vigorous development and the effects of rising global temperatures, have conspired against Fiji’s fragile environment.

The country now faces major environmental challenges, including deforestation, unsustainable fishing practices, and the introduction of invasive species, such as the crown-of-thorns starfish, that have led to the destruction of coral reefs. Rising sea levels has led to the erosion of Fiji’s coastal areas, and the intrusion of saltwater has destroyed farmland and forced residents to move to safer ground.

Before I arrived, I had read that Pacific Island nations were threatened by rising temperatures and sea levels, but it wasn’t until my fifth day there, when my friends and I flew 45 minutes on a small prop plane to the island of Kadavu, that the threat came into full view.

Outside the shack that doubled as the terminal, we climbed into a pickup truck for the bumpy ride to a boat landing. There, we boarded a banana boat for a one-hour ride past shallow reefs and gumdrop specks of land until we reached a lagoon and Matava, a minimalist resort where we planned to stay two nights.

Walking around the grounds, which were built on a steep hill, the damage from Tropical Cyclone Keni, which had swept through the islands in mid-April, three weeks before our arrival, was obvious. Boats in the lagoon were out of commission. A pool that was under construction was a mess. A tree had fallen on top of the dive shop and hit one of the compressors. A path to a nearby village had disappeared in a landslide.

The storm had packed winds of more than 75 miles per hour and dropped nearly a foot of rain on Viti Levu. Kadavu was more directly in the storm’s path, and more than 800 homes were damaged. The storm came just a week after another cyclone, Josie.

Outrigger Fiji

Beach Resort

Keni and Josie were not as strong as the fierce Winston cyclone, which hit Fiji in 2016. But what surprised islanders was that the storms arrived weeks after the cyclone season was supposed to have ended. Although there is still much scientific debate about the impact of climate change on tropical cyclones, to many islanders the timing of the storms are evidence that warming temperatures are leading to shifting weather patterns and leaving the island increasingly vulnerable.

“We literally said, ‘Let’s build the pool because the cyclone season is over,’ and then we got hit,” Luke Kercheval, one of the owners of Matava, told me, adding that the storms had scared off visitors. “We got more rain in a week than some countries get in a year. That’s not normal.”

“Donald Trump might not agree, but it’s 100 percent about climate change,” he added. “I don’t need to be a scientist to figure this out.”

The topic of climate change was everywhere in Fiji, even at the airport in Nadi, where a billboard read, “ Airports Addressing Climate Change .” Fiji’s prime minister, Frank Bainimarama, is the current president of COP23 , the United Nations Climate Change conference. In November, he brought two Fijian children with him to a conference in Bonn to remind delegates that the future of Fiji depends on action against the effects of climate change. Already, one-quarter of the country’s bird species and two-thirds of amphibians are threatened or endangered because of rising sea temperatures and overfishing.

A billboard I spotted captured the mood well: “We are all in the same canoe rising up against climate change.”

The ever-present discussion about Fiji’s fate gave me pause. Would Fiji’s stunning islands look the same in a decade or two? The soft breezes and gentle sunsets and crystal blue water at Matava made it hard to muster alarm. It also made me recall a conversation I had a few days before with Dick Watling, the founder of Nature Fiji, an environmental conservation group.

Mr. Watling arrived in Fiji about 35 years ago and was an astute observer of local politics and the issue of climate change. Over coffee at Cappuccino Republic in Suva, Mr. Watling said that Fiji’s leaders, like those elsewhere in the Pacific region, have become expert at extracting donations from wealthier nations. So he was not surprised that many of Fiji’s problems were being blamed on climate change because it might help attract foreign aid, while also letting lawmakers sidestep thornier issues like unbridled development and lax environmental regulations.

“The government sees this as a major opportunity,” Mr. Watling said. “COP23 is the best tourism marketing program we have ever produced by a country mile.”

Signs of eco-tourism were certainly evident in Fiji. At Matava, solar panels generated most of the electricity, including the lights and fans in our huts. The fruit and vegetables we ate were grown locally and the fish was caught nearby. The eggs came from the chickens at the resort. Bottles, cans and other recyclables were sent back to Viti Levu.

Living off the land did little to protect against Cyclone Keni, though. One of the resort’s boats had flipped upside down and its outboard motors were damaged. The chickens were swept away and the vegetable gardens were destroyed. Several workers at the resort lost their homes. The damage to the reefs made finding fish harder.

I chatted with Maika O’Conna, a boat captain who grew up on Kadavu who said traditional fishing grounds were under attack from poachers, too.

Overfishing and the destruction of the reefs was something I heard discussed back on Viti Levu. One day, I took a trip with my friend Sharon to the Outrigger Fiji Beach Resort , about a two-hour drive from Suva. There, the reef had been damaged by repeated storms and polluted runoff from a nearby stream. With the help of a Japanese aid organization , the hotel built coral gardens that its guests help maintain.

The gardens consist of large metal grates, or propagation racks, placed in the water about 100 feet from the shore. Jonacani Masi, one of the hotel workers, took us out to see them. He brought a dozen cones made of sand mixed with concrete that were the size of my hand. When we reached the grates, he dove underwater and returned with a healthy piece of brown spiky coral that looked like a deer antler. He broke it into smaller, finger-length pieces, and placed each one in a cone packed with quick-drying cement.

Snorkels and masks on, we swam down to the grates and placed the cones in the openings. We saw dozens of other cones with healthy-looking coral stems already there. Together, they created a small reef where none had existed. Fish nipped at my legs, protective of their newly claimed territory. When the coral fingerlings were big enough, they were replanted in the natural reef elsewhere.

“The reef was there for the taking, but it was also abused,” Kinijoji “Kenny” Sarai, Mr. Masi’s boss, said over a lunch of Spanish mackerel marinated in coconut milk, lemon and vinegar. Overfishing by locals depleted the reefs’ aquatic population, and forests cleared by developers led to more pollutants being dumped into rivers that flowed into the ocean, damaging the reefs. “We’re trying to bring the coral back to life.”

Mr. Sarai, who grew up in a nearby village, said the locals are concerned about the damage to the reef. Part of its restoration included helping the reef regenerate, and also trying to convince locals not to fish in reefs being repaired. Though they were reluctant to see restrictions on their fishing rights, many villagers work at the Outrigger and other resorts and recognized that restoring the reef was a key to attracting tourists and, ultimately, preserving their jobs.

“People in Fiji know tourism is the big money earner,” he said. “There’s a national conversation around eco-tourism.”

The next day we set off for Beqa, an island six nautical miles offshore, to meet Sefano Katz. An Israeli by way of Australia, Mr. Katz is a marine biologist and an expert in coral ecosystems. He arrived in Fiji three years ago with the nonprofit group Pacific Blue Foundation to help the locals on Beqa preserve their reef, which is 10 miles wide and one of the largest in Fiji.

He lives in a village of about 200, where he teaches children about composting and restoring mangrove forests, which help protect the coastline from erosion caused by storm surge. He works with the elders to improve the sewage treatment so that polluted water doesn’t seep into the ocean. Villagers are also removing the crown-of-thorns starfish, which eat coral, from the reef.

Mr. Katz said he focuses on steps the villagers can take on their own rather than broad concepts like fighting climate change. He pointed to a study that showed that 48 percent of the damage to the Great Barrier Reef in Australia was from tropical storms and cyclones, and another 42 percent from crown-of-thorns starfish, whose population has exploded because of an increase in phosphorus runoff from sewage, and other issues. This, he said, was similar in Fiji.

“People protect what they understand,” he said. “That’s the way to make change.”

Mr. Katz took us to meet Filipe Kirikirikula, the 60-year-old head of the council of elders. We sat outside his home in the middle of the well-kept village by the beach. He supported Mr. Katz’s mission, which he said required changing age-old habits. “Most of the people just abuse the environment,” he said. “It’s quite difficult to teach them about conservation. People here have their own freedom.”

The days of going out on the reef with a spear to catch dinner were disappearing, he said. So he supported a plan to create an area to raise clams and fish that would be protected from poachers. It would also repopulate the reefs, which in turn would attract more divers who could be charged a fee, he said.

As the afternoon waned, Mr. Katz took us back to the mainland on his boat. Beqa, which legend has it, is home to the Fijian shark god, Dakuwaqa , faded from view as we skipped over the waves and around the swells.

Follow NY Times Travel on Twitter , Instagram and Facebook . Get weekly updates from our Travel Dispatch newsletter, with tips on traveling smarter, destination coverage and photos from all over the world.

Ken Belson covers the N.F.L. He joined the Sports section in 2009 after stints in Metro and Business. From 2001 to 2004, he wrote about Japan in the Tokyo bureau. More about Ken Belson

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One year on: Fiji’s tourism sector ‘exceeding expectations’

Fiji’s tourism sector leaders are celebrating the one-year anniversary of Fiji’s reopening to tourists, having seen over half a million tourists visit the nation since December 1, 2021.

Covid-19 ravaged Fiji’s tourism-dependent economy, with an estimated 115,000 people suddenly out of work when borders shut, and hotels and resorts closed their doors.

Fiji Airways CEO and Managing Director, Andre Viljoen, puts the success of the reopening down to “months of meticulous strategising and preparation.”

Tourism Fiji says 520,312 visitors have come to Fiji since December 1, 2021. That is 63% of pre COVID-19 levels (in 2019). In October, arrivals hit 90% of pre COVID-19 visitor numbers.

The majority of these visitors are coming from Australia, followed by New Zealand and the United States. But this week, Fiji Airways has also launched a twice-weekly service to Canada, and it hopes to resume service to other destinations soon.

Tourists are also staying longer in the country according to the national tourism authority, and they are spending more at FJ$271 per night, up 12% from pre-COVID-19. Viljoen says in reopening when it did,  Fiji was “miles ahead of many other Pacific Island countries and indeed, other much larger nations in other parts of the world.”

Chris Cocker, the CEO of the Pacific Tourism Organisation, concurs, saying the air access Fiji enjoys through its national carrier,  has been critical to this. He says Fiji’s industry has also demonstrated that preparation, and coordination is key. However he expects competition from other markets to intensify.

“We need to understand as well that the whole world is reopening. And it’s very competitive. In this case, it’s not only our part of the Pacific. If our packages are not as competitive, you’ve got Bali and also the other destinations [that]  they’ll go to in this case.”

Tourism Fiji CEO, Brent Hill says the rate of recovery is exceeding expectations, “and the impact can be seen in our economy with tourists buzzing in resorts, towns, as well as villages as people experience the true Fiji. The resilience of the Fijian people, the care we show for each other and our communities, our natural hospitality and happiness, and our commitment to welcoming back visitors is why Fiji has been successful in standing out as a destination.”

Fiji Airways’ CEO is bullish about future bookings. Viljoen says while initially Fiji benefited from pent-up demand from people sick of lockdowns, that is no longer the case.

“When we look at bookings held, tickets sold to people that would travel in the future from the start of December until the end of May with 30% ahead of 2019 bookings, that’s enormous. We still have 30% of our markets still closed, we’ve got Japan and Hong Kong closed, and some South Pacific countries still opening slowly.”

With Fiji’s national election scheduled for December 14, the government of Prime Minister Voreqe Bainimarama will be hoping that some of the celebratory atmosphere that Fiji has witnessed this week, will serve them well in polling.  

Bainimarama says with the reopening, the country has achieved what many had said was impossible.

“Over 100,000 Fijians have re-entered the workforce,” he says in a Facebook post this week, continuing, “Nothing makes me prouder than seeing our people back in jobs they love.”

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Coastal resource management and tourism development in Fiji Islands: a conservation challenge

• Published: 08 June 2020
• Volume 23 , pages 3009–3027, ( 2021 )

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• Shalini Singh 1 , 2 ,
• Jahangeer A. Bhat   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2451-8499 2   nAff3 ,
• Shipra Shah 2 &
• Nazir A. Pala 4  

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The tourism sector has been a key driver of socioeconomic progress in Fiji Islands since the 1980s, in comparison with other industries such as agriculture, fisheries, and forestry. Fiji currently plans to further expand its tourism industry into a 2 billion FJD sector, which places great pressure on the coastal environment and resources that attract more than 500,000 tourists per year. Unplanned tourism development has adverse impacts on the environment and dependent communities, which is often attributed to weak governance and poorly enforced regulations. In Fiji, the industry has been recognized as responsible for mangrove clearance and coastal degradation, both of which aggravate problems such as coastline erosion, vulnerability to natural disasters, fish stock declines, poor water quality, pollution, and biodiversity loss. Though the country has national legislations in place, as well as regional and international collaborations to manage its ocean resources, it lacks the capacity and resources to implement environment policy, planning, and regulation. There is a need to strengthen governance and community capacity to address problems of effective enforcement of legislation and ensure the conservation, management, and sustainable utilization of marine and coastal resources.

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(Photo by: Shalini and Jahangeer)

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Jahangeer A. Bhat

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Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development, University of the South Pacific, Lower Laucala Campus, Laucala Bay Road, Suva, Fiji

Shalini Singh

College of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Fiji National University, Koronivia, Nausori, Fiji

Shalini Singh, Jahangeer A. Bhat & Shipra Shah

Division of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Faculty of Forestry, SKUAST-K, Benhama-Watlar, Ganderbal, J&K, 191201, India

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Singh, S., Bhat, J.A., Shah, S. et al. Coastal resource management and tourism development in Fiji Islands: a conservation challenge. Environ Dev Sustain 23 , 3009–3027 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00764-4

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A greener future for tourism in Fiji?

Recently I arrived back in Fiji after nearly two years away. One of the first changes I noticed, on the drive from Nadi to Suva, was the proliferation of the African tulip tree. It’s a beautiful tree, with huge scarlet flowers – hence its introduction a few decades ago as a garden ornamental. Presumably no one involved with bringing it to the main islands of Fiji realised how it would spread, outcompeting the native trees and taking over large swathes of forest, so that it is now one of the worst invasive species in Fiji.

Driving along the spectacular south coast road of Viti Levu, as many newly arrived visitors do, I wondered how many tourists think they are looking at a beautiful natural forest, and how many recognise a highly disturbed and degraded ecosystem. I speculated that, if Fiji markets itself as a pristine paradise, a ‘green’ destination – as it should – this might draw increasing numbers of environmentally knowledgeable tourists, who will see through the ‘unspoilt paradise’ posters and ask what Fiji is doing to fix its environmental problems.

The loss of native trees has a knock-on effect for entire ecosystems, affecting native species from insects to birds and bats (the only native mammals here). Other introduced and now invasive species that have dramatically changed Fiji’s natural environment include the mongoose and the cane toad, both seen almost everywhere on the main islands – unlike the native ground-dwelling birds, iguanas and snakes which, as a direct result, are now extinct or found only on remote, outer islands.

Invasive species are a very visible environmental problem that needs addressing, but this has so far proved too difficult. Any solution requires collaboration between land managers, different government agencies, conservationists and researchers. It will take considerable time, effort and money.

By coincidence, the same week I arrived, Fiji began consultations towards revising its national tourism strategy . I attended the first of a series of webinars, organised by the Ministry of Commerce, Trade, Tourism and Transport (MCTTT) and supported by the International Finance Corporation (IFC). This ‘public–private dialogue’ had the key stakeholders MCTTT, Fiji Tourism, Fiji Airways, the Fiji Hotel and Tourism Association, and Duavata Sustainable Tourism Collective sharing their views and perspectives.

Fiji’s new strategy is to be called the National Sustainable Tourism Framework. ‘Sustainable’ is a ubiquitous word these days, but it’s good to have it in the title. It at least indicates a medium- to long-term planning approach, rather than short termism.

The word was first used around the idea of environmental protection – the classic definition of sustainable development was coined by the United Nations Brundtland Commission in 1987 as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. It’s now used much more widely, beyond the environment. We understand that sustainability has other facets – social, cultural, economic – and importantly, that addressing one while ignoring the others will ultimately lead to failure. Still, we shouldn’t forget the word’s environmental origins.

Listening to the webinar, I was very glad that Duavata Sustainable Tourism Collective had been included in the panel of speakers. Duavata is an association of small tourism businesses built on and united by respect for Fiji’s environment and cultural heritage – my own agritourism business is a member. Inviting Duavata to the table indicates a recognition of the important role that environmental and socio-cultural dimensions play in distinguishing Fiji from its competitors in the international tourism marketplace. Hopefully it also means that sustainability in these areas will be addressed within the new national framework. If Fiji pitches itself as an unspoilt paradise – with intact traditions, culture and environment – then it needs to take care of these vital assets.

Tourism is Fiji’s biggest industry. Directly or indirectly, it touches on the lives of all Fijians. Similarly, the whole country – its natural beauty, its friendly people, its warm ocean and colourful fish and corals; but also its burning sugarcane stubble, its traffic jams, its invasive species and its degraded forests – is what is ‘on sale’ to tourists. And the more tourists leave their resorts and investigate the ‘real Fiji’, the more important it becomes for the industry – and the country’s leaders – to look at the problem issues.

Tourists are already voicing their concerns about Fiji’s environmental issues, with the help of the international media. The recent fight-back by two Australian surfers and a local landowner against damage to the reefs around Malolo Island is an example. The court ruling – a hefty fine for the Chinese developers – conveyed a positive message, but whether it signifies a genuine orientation of government focus to Fiji’s environmental problems remains to be seen.

Much of the MCTTT webinar was about statistics, trends and targets, as tourism reboots. The pandemic and the climate – we’ve had 14 tropical cyclones over just six recent years – were cited as obvious risks for the industry. But not many of the panellists mentioned the importance of protecting and improving the environment. Environmental degradation and loss may be equally significant threats. And, crucially, measures to recover and protect the environment, through better management of forests, water, reefs and other natural resources, contribute to resilience – of the country’s people, and its economy – in the face of climate and other shocks.

Fiji and tourism are inseparable. Rebuilding the tourism industry should include a renewed drive to restore and protect the nation’s natural environment, and facilitate its sustainable management by its community owners.

The challenge shouldn’t be underestimated. Invasive species are only one environmental issue that needs to be addressed – there are many more. At the government level, effective cross-sectoral policy and planning will be essential – not currently a strong point in Fiji. And if Fiji and tourism are inseparable, then everyone needs to be meaningfully involved in finding new ways forward.

But surely restoring Fiji’s natural assets is worth the effort. Let’s not compromise the ability of future generations of Fijians to meet their needs – but instead make sure that the foundations are sound and healthy, for future industries and livelihoods. If the tourism recovery drive can be used to catalyse such a refocus, this will be a positive outcome from the pandemic.

Anne Moorhead is co-owner of KokoMana Pte Ltd, an agritourism business in Savusavu, Fiji. The views are those of the author only.

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Anne Moorhead

Anne Moorhead is a freelance writer and editor specialising in sustainable development with a focus on the Pacific islands region. She works as a consultant editor for Devpolicy Blog. Anne is also co-owner and chocolate maker at KokoMana in Savusavu, Fiji.

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Fijians affected by tourism job losses recover from pandemic

May 24, 2022.

Meresiana Salauca, Naidi Village, Savusavu (Photo: UNDP)

Meresiana Salauca of Naidi village in Savusavu, Fiji, was one of the unfortunate workers laid off from one of the resorts on the island - as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which hit Fiji with its first wave in 2020. The 56-year-old is a single mother of two, who worked as a massage therapist at the resort, had saved $500 and used it to start a canteen business.

Soon after, the Fijian government announced the COVID-19 Concessional Support Package for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) through which she qualified and received a $3,000 grant to continue her business operations. However, things did not go as planned because she was operating during one of Fiji's darkest periods, when borders were closed, and movement was restricted.

Meresiana was overcome with emotion as she shared her experience at the Financial Literacy Training and seedling distribution, in the villages of Naidi, Waivunia and Vivili between 2-10 May 2022. “Many times, I wanted to close my canteen because there were so many credit requests, but thankfully, my children kept encouraging me to keep going. I'm grateful for their support and encouragement and this training has taught me how to budget my finances, particularly for families, because there is a lot of money committed to village obligations, but I have learnt that even saving $5 is a very good strategy,” she said. Ms. Salauca worked as a Japanese translator for the Freebird Institute in Namaka, Nadi, before entering the tourism industry.

Funded by the UN Development Programme’s Multi-Partner Trust Fund (MPTF) COVID-19 recovery assistance project , the financial literacy training was conducted by the Financial Management Counsellors Association of Fiji (FMCA) - a group of financial and business management bankers with community development expertise. The support also included the distribution of vegetable seedlings, agricultural resource materials, and IT equipment such as a multimedia projector, pull-up screen, and hard drive to the villages to enable online learnings and workshops.

The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on these villages, resulting in job losses, reduced hours, and loss of livelihood.

Vika Teki, Waivunia Village, Savusavu (Photo: UNDP)

68-year-old Vika Teki of Waivunia village is a handicraft maker with more than a decade of experience. She was also greatly impacted by the pandemic because she was heavily reliant on tourists visiting the hidden paradise to buy her handicrafts, which included necklaces, mats, baskets, and bracelets, among other things.

"I relied heavily on this business, but since the borders closed and there were no tourists, I couldn't make or sell any more. So, during the lockdown, we had to find alternative source of income, such as fishing, but now that the borders have reopened, business is gradually returning to normal."

She also runs a catering business, where she teaches other village women how to bake and encourages them not to rely solely on one source of income. 

Ruveni Barrack, Vivili Village, Savusavu (Photo: UNDP)

Ruveni Barrack, a massage therapist by profession who now runs his own Massage Therapy Academy in Savusavu said the MPTF COVID-19 Recovery Assistance came at a time when they needed it the most, especially coming out of a very dark period, and it has encouraged them to be business minded. “I am grateful to UNDP for bringing this training to Vivili because it has encouraged me to continue training Fijians interested in becoming massage therapists in our hotels and to expand this business. This training has taught me that family comes first and that it is critical to involve family in decision making.” Mr. Barrack is also a farmer who sells root crops and vegetables during harvest to nearby resorts, restaurants in town, and the Savusavu Municipal Market with hopes to expand his farming business and raise more capital with the eight varieties of vegetable seedlings he received. 

60 participants from the financial literacy training held at Naidi village, Savusavu. (Photo: UNDP)

A whole family approach was used during the financial literacy training to encourage the 200 participants to appreciate and leverage the knowledge and skills of members of their families when managing and planning their finances. Of the 200 participants, 76 of them were women.

The training was aimed to strengthen the financial competencies of the individuals who will have a direct impact on their families, educate farmers about financial services, allowing them to make better informed decisions about managing family finances and how to move forward following the effects of COVID-19 on their family, business, and income.

Participants at Waivunia village with their certificates and seedlings. (Photo: UNDP)

For more information, please contact:

Akosita Talei, Inclusive Growth - Communications and Research Officer, UNDP Pacific Office in Fiji, Email:  [email protected]

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Tourism in island states is vulnerable to climate change because it may result in detrimental changes in relation to extreme events, sea level rise, transport and communication interruption. This study analyses adaptation to climate change by tourist resorts in Fiji, as well as their potential to reduce climate change through reductions in carbon dioxide emissions. Interviews, site visitations, and an accommodation survey were undertaken. Many operators already prepare for climate-related events and therefore adapt to potential impacts resulting from climate change. Reducing emissions is not important to operators; however, decreasing energy costs for economic reasons is practised. Recommendations for further initiatives are made and synergies between the adaptation and mitigation approaches are explored.

1. Introduction

Fiji is the largest tourism destination in the South Pacific but international arrivals have fluctuated over the last 5 years because of a series of detrimental events, such as the political coup in Fiji in 2000, the terrorist attack in the United States on 11 September 2001, the Bali attack in 2002, and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome outbreaks in Asia in 2003. These events have shown that tourism in Fiji is vulnerable to both internal and external events. Tourism is also vulnerable to natural hazards and disasters, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, droughts, and cyclones. Climate change plays an important role in disaster management, because it is likely to affect Fiji through sea level rise and storm surge, changing temperature and precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events. As in other developing countries, this vulnerability is aggravated by limited institutional capacity, non-availability of technologies, ill-enforced regulatory frameworks, and lack of financing (B. Challenger, Presentation at the IPCC Outreach Workshop on Mitigation, September 23–24, 2002). Climate change has to be seen in a multi-stress context of wider environmental, social, and political changes and pressures ( Wilbanks, 2003 ).

While the wider climate change debate has until recently mainly focused on mitigation ( Burton et al., 2002 ; Wilbanks, 2003 ; Nicholls and Lowe, 2004 ), the sparse research specifically dealing with tourism and climate change has largely concentrated on tourism's vulnerability and adaptation to climate change (e.g., Elsasser and Buerki, 2002 ; Scott, 2003 ; Scott et al., 2003 ). Both the tourism industry and researchers have identified a threat to tourism resulting from climate change, especially in alpine areas, small island states, and developing countries ( World Tourism Organisation, 2003 ). Climate change is also likely to affect global tourist flows as a result of the changing attractiveness of both destinations and countries of origin ( Hamilton et al., 2005 ). Despite an inherent interest in ‘protecting’ the tourism industry, there is increasing awareness that tourism is an important contributor to climate change through its consumption of fossil fuels and resulting greenhouse gas emissions ( Becken, 2002 ; Gössling, 2002 ). The wider literature on climate change now emphasises that neither adaptation nor mitigation should be implemented independently, but that an integrated framework for sustainable development should be envisaged ( IPCC, 2001 ; Nicholls and Lowe, 2004 ). In the same way, research on climate change and tourism will benefit from taking into account the multiple interactions between climate, tourism, and the wider environment ( Dubois, 2003 ; Viner and Amelung, 2003 ).

This study seeks to enhance understanding of climate change issues associated with tourism from both adaptation and mitigation perspectives, and explores synergies between the two responses. A localised approach is taken (as suggested by Wilbanks (2003) ), with the research being confined geographically to the main tourist destinations in Fiji (Viti Levu, the main island, and the Mamanuca Islands). Moreover, this study concentrates on the accommodation sector as the core component of the tourism product in Fiji. The paper is based, in part, on a more comprehensive report on climate change and tourism in Fiji ( Becken, 2004 ).

1.1. State of tourism in Fiji

In 2002, about 400,000 tourists visited Fiji with an average length of stay of 8 days. Despite adverse political events nationally and internationally, tourism in Fiji has grown over the last years ( Fig. 1 ) and is forecast to grow at an average rate of 6.2% per year between 2004 and 2014 ( Campbell, 2004 ). In 2002, most tourists came from Australia (31%), New Zealand (17%), the United States (15%) and the United Kingdom (11%). While most visitors come for ‘rest and relaxation’ typically linked to beach environments ( Ministry of Tourism, 2003 ), current marketing campaigns aim to shift the image away from pure beach promotion to a wider experience. Also, there are attempts to attract more tourists from long-haul markets, for example from the USA and Europe, in addition to the traditional markets of Australia and New Zealand ( Ayala, 1995 ; S. Toganivalu, Manager, Fiji Visitors Bureau, pers. comm.).

International visitor arrivals to Fiji between 2000 and 2003.

Tourism is increasingly important to the national and local economies. In 1998, tourism earned F$568 million in foreign exchange, while sugar only earned F$244 million ( Narayan, 2000 ). The decline of the sugar industry ( Narayan and Prasad, 2003 ) has resulted in heightened expectations from tourism as the main export industry ( Levett and McNally, 2003 ). In 1999, tourism directly and indirectly contributed 29.5% to GDP and 37.0% to exports ( Word Travel and Tourism Council, 2001 ). A major problem of tourism in Fiji, however, is its economic leakage; about 60% of tourists’ expenditure is estimated to leak out of the country ( Levett and McNally, 2003 ).

Several attempts have been made to improve the environmental performance of Fiji's tourism industry, including projects related to energy efficiency and renewable energy sources, and environmentally friendly resort construction ( Aalbersberg et al., 2003 ). Nevertheless, the overall focus of the Government is on increasing visitor numbers, retaining tourist dollars, and encouraging further development ( Narayan and Prasad, 2003 ). The Fiji Tourism Development Plan 1998–2005 ( Ministry of Tourism, 1998 ) recommended a ‘Step Change’, with a substantial number of new developments, mainly in the already developed areas of the Coral Coast and the Mamanuca Islands. Levett and McNally (2003) assessed the sustainability of this Tourism Development Plan and concluded that it contains some useful suggestions for reducing tourism's environmental impacts. However, the authors expressed concern that the large scale of the envisaged development could exceed carrying capacities and ‘tip the balance’ towards irreversible effects on the environment. While there exist policy frameworks that regulate tourism development (e.g., Environmental Impact Assessment), few of them are implemented and work in practice.

1.2. Vulnerability of tourism in Fiji to climate change

Several studies on climate change, climate variability and vulnerability, and impact assessments have been undertaken in the South Pacific (e.g., Hay et al., 2003 ) and in Fiji specifically ( Nunn et al., 1994 ; Feresi et al., 2000 ; World Bank, 2000 ). Projected temperature increases are somewhat lower for Fiji than for the global average of 0.1 °C per decade ( IPCC, 2001 ), being in the order of 0.7–0.9 °C per 1.0 °C increase in temperature globally ( Feresi et al., 2000 ; Salinger, 2000 ). Sea level rise in Fiji may be in the order of 23–43 cm in 2050, and up to 1.03 m in 2100 ( World Bank, 2000 ). Trends in climate change and sea level rise due to global warming have to be seen against other variations caused by existing natural variability, prevailing winds, earth crustal movements, and wave action.

Most of Fiji's population (about 90%; Feresi et al., 2000 ) and infrastructure (e.g., towns, airports, resorts) are currently located on coastal and low-lying areas and, therefore, are potentially affected by inundation and other damage to coastal systems. However, in contrast to atoll islands (e.g., the Maldives or Kiribas), the higher Fiji islands such as Viti Levu offer some room to shift activities inland under a long-term scenario of sea level rise. Climate-related risks in coastal areas pose a risk for existing capital and could also be a major impediment to further investment and capital, in particular when insurance premiums are high or exclude cover for damage resulting from climate-related impacts. Other problems associated with rising sea levels, besides inundation, include flooding, intrusion of salt water into groundwater and rivers, and drainage problems ( Feresi et al., 2000 ).

Coastal retreat and erosion resulting from changing wind patterns and strength, changes in shoreline features (e.g., groynes and sea walls), and sea level variability and sea level rise are major problems, as they affect tourism building stocks and beaches. Coastal retreat over the last decades in Fiji may be in the order of 15–20 m in certain locations (Mimura and Nunn, 1994, in Feresi et al., 2000 ). Low-lying atolls could be completely lost as a result of sea level rise. In addition, major damage to existing coastal ecosystems is expected as a result of climate change ( World Bank, 2000 ). Coastal ecosystems are already under pressure from overexploitation, pollution (from sewage, toxic substances, and nutrients), deforestation, infrastructure development, loss of mangroves, 1 conversion into agricultural land, and coral mining ( Feresi et al., 2000 ). The cumulative effect of these non-climate-related impacts reduces the ability to cope with sea level rise and other adverse consequences of climate change.

There is great uncertainty about how climate change might affect the frequency and nature of extreme events, such as cyclones and floods. Climate models suggest, however, that the average intensity and possibly the frequency of cyclones may increase. Currently, on average, there are 1.28 cyclones per year in Fiji ( Feresi et al., 2000 ). Cyclone-related risks for tourism include loss of quality holiday time, disrupted transport, cancelled flights, stranded passengers, destroyed tourism infrastructure and overall damage to Fiji's image as a safe and attractive destination. The greatest damage is often associated with storm surges—large masses of water pushed onshore by tropical cyclones and potentially aggravated by astronomical tides. Under global warming conditions the risk of storm surges is increased as a result of higher sea levels and changes in cyclone characteristics ( McInnes et al., 2000 ).

Climate change entails changes in precipitation patterns with wide implications for soil moisture and water availability, and as a result agricultural production and water supply for households and tourism. Current climate models provide ambiguous projections regarding precipitation in Fiji, although there is some indication that heavy rainfall events might increase while total rainfall might decrease ( Hay et al., 2003 ). It is also possible that droughts may become more frequent, which would require water management measures to reduce the need for freshwater. Currently, loss from leakage from water pipes in Fiji is greater than potential decreases in water availability due to climate change ( World Bank, 2000 ).

Coral reefs are among the most threatened ecosystems in Fiji. Reefs have several functions: they are important for biodiversity, provide habitat for fish, buffer against waves and erosion, and provide carbonate sand for beaches ( Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2000 ). The optimal ambient temperature for coral is 25–29 °C and they are extremely sensitive to sudden changes in their environment. When corals are under stress, they expel the algae (dinoflagellates) that symbiotically supply them with oxygen or food, resulting in ‘bleaching’. Corals are already under stress from factors such as high nutrient content, turbidity and sedimentation, overfishing, destructive fishing methods, changed water chemistry and physical damage, and an increase in sea level. Some corals can grow at the same rate upwards as sea levels rise; however, these types of corals are not common in the Pacific, where existing coral species are characterised by lateral rather than vertical growth ( Nunn, 2000 ). An ecological shift in coral composition would be required in the Pacific to compensate for rising sea levels. Stress thresholds that result in bleaching events will become very frequent in islands of the South Pacific between 2010 and 2070, and it is likely that in the next 20–50 years corals as dominant organisms on reefs will disappear ( Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2000 ). Destruction of a substantial proportion of the coral reefs means that one of the major pull factors for tourists to Fiji could disappear (see also Cesar et al., 2003 ).

Other climate change impacts include health issues, such as the more frequent occurrence of cholera and dengue fever, and biotoxin poisoning, risks to food and energy supply (based on fuel import via a supply chain from Singapore, Australia and New Zealand; Hay et al., 2003 ), and, as a result of all of the above, significant socio-economic impacts. Tourists’ personal health and safety may be at risk in the case of extreme weather events. Tourism might also be affected indirectly, for example as a result of climate-related impacts on food production.

Tourism in Fiji is largely resort-based and therefore the accommodation sector is the prominent tourism sub-sector (about 70% of total expenditure is on accommodation; Ministry of Tourism, 2003 ). Tourists spend most of their time at a resort, and most of tourists’ resource consumption (e.g., water and energy) takes place at the resort level (for a full analysis of both accommodation and transport energy use, refer to Becken, 2004 ). For the above reasons, it was considered appropriate to focus this analysis on the accommodation sub-sector.

Data were collected from three sources: stakeholder and expert interviews, tourist operator interviews, and an accommodation survey. The stakeholder and expert interviews ( N=14 ) were informal and notes were taken. The results and background information obtained informed the accommodation survey and industry interviews ( N=9 ). The private-sector interviews were conducted at the resorts and included site visits. Interviews were semi-structured and designed to enhance or confirm knowledge gained in the accommodation survey. The interviews covered the operators’ attitudes towards climate change, and adaptation and mitigation measures in place. All the interviews were undertaken between 15 April and 1 May and 23 August and 3 September 2004.

The accommodation survey was designed as a mail-back survey and was sent out on 23 April 2004. The questionnaire sought information on energy consumption, climate change mitigation and adaptation measures, and environmental management. The survey was undertaken with the support of the Department of Energy and the Ministry of Tourism. The questionnaire was posted to all tourism accommodation providers in Suva, the Coral Coast, the Mamanuca Islands, and Nadi ( N = 116 ), together with a prepaid envelope for sending the survey back. The addresses of the businesses were taken from the ‘Explore Fiji’ brochure (March 2004) published by the Fiji Visitor Bureau on a monthly basis, and available to tourists free of charge. It is possible that this list of businesses is not comprehensive, but it covers the majority of providers and constitutes information that is easily available to tourists themselves.

Two weeks after the accommodation survey was sent out, follow-up calls were undertaken. Some businesses claimed they had not received the survey forms, and the questionnaire was resent by fax or email. The same procedure was repeated after another week. Twenty-five accommodation providers replied to the survey, which represents a response rate of 21.6% ( Table 1 ). Two of the respondents were also among the operators interviewed. Unfortunately, the responses do not represent the true geographical dispersion of tourism. Resorts based on the Coral Coast are under-represented with only three accommodation providers sending back the survey. The Mamanuca Islands showed the highest response rate. This may be related to a possibly greater environmental awareness and involvement of these businesses as reflected in the existence of the Mamanuca Environment Society with 11 islands and 28 members. Overall, it is possible that the accommodation survey is biased towards businesses that are more interested in and aware of climate change, which may have aided their willingness to reply. Because of its small sample size, the accommodation survey has to be seen as indicative rather than truly representative. The same applies to the calculation of energy consumption rates, which give a rough estimate of what might be the average energy use of accommodation businesses in Fiji.

Overview on responses to the accommodation survey

The adaptation part of the accommodation survey is analysed descriptively, and relevant information obtained in stakeholder and manager interviews is added where appropriate. Analysis of the energy consumption part of the survey involved some calculations to derive energy benchmarks and CO 2 emissions. The data provided by respondents was in original units (e.g., kWh, litres, kilograms) or dollar terms (F$), and conversion factors were applied to estimate energy usage in megajoules (MJ) and CO 2 emissions in kilograms ( Baines, 1993 ). Carbon dioxide emissions associated with electricity provided in Viti Levu through the main grid had to be estimated based on the information that about 24.5% of electricity is based on thermal generation, with the remainder being either hydropower or generated by burning bagasse from sugarcane, both of which were considered carbon neutral. No data were available on the ratio of fossil fuel input to electricity output for Fiji thermal power plants from which emission factors could be calculated. For this reason a New Zealand figure of 624 g of CO 2 /kWh electricity consumed (i.e., including transmission losses) was used (New Zealand Ministry of Commerce, 1995 ); in the knowledge that this figure might differ for the Fijian context. The emission factors for diesel and gas as used in this study were 68.7 and 60.4 g CO 2 /MJ, respectively.

The following sections discuss, in turn, adaptation of the tourism accommodation sector to climate change, its CO 2 emissions and mitigation measures, and the barriers to implementing either adaptation or mitigation measures.

3. Climate change vulnerability and adaptation measures

3.1. existing impacts.

Tourism stakeholders and operators recognised environmental factors, such as healthy reefs and clear water, as essential for tourism in Fiji. Operators surveyed were aware of potential climate-change-related impacts, such as cyclones (32%), the loss of coral reefs (32%), and heavy rain events or flooding (20%). Some also related polluted water or the growth of seaweed to rising water temperatures and therefore climate change. Rising sea levels were only mentioned by three businesses, two of which are based in the low-lying Mamanuca Islands. Most accommodation businesses had experienced at least one of the climate-related impacts shown in Table 2 . The most commonly identified impacts were erosion problems, water availability, and the disruption of supply chains (e.g., electricity). These disruptions are possibly unrelated to climate change. Several resorts had been affected by coral bleaching and suffered damage to their property as a result of cyclones or other climate-related events.

Climate-related impacts previously experienced

Eight businesses reported that they were not impacted by any of the factors listed. Five of those are located in the Mamanuca Islands, which are comparatively vulnerable to climate change because of the risk of cyclones, sea level rise, poor water quality, dying corals, and limited water availability. This apparent contradiction suggests the need for further research to find out whether the resorts in question have not been affected or whether they are well adapted to climate variability. Another possibility is that there is a general lack of awareness of climate change impacts and managers do not necessarily relate the problems that they may be facing to climate change.

Twelve out of the 25 accommodation businesses have insurance cover against damage from climate-related events; most policies being for cyclones while some include floods or sea surge as well. Insurance cover against cyclones is expensive, but critical given the extent of damage in the case of a cyclone hitting the resort, and premiums can be reduced substantially by implementing risk-mitigating procedures (J. Rice, Manager, Shangri-La's Fijian Resort, pers. comm.).

3.2. Adaptation

Adaptation measures by accommodation providers can be usefully categorised into those measures that require some form of construction (to protect against cyclones, hot temperatures, and drought) and those that entail changes in management or behaviour, either by staff or tourists. Tourist accommodation is increasingly built in a cyclone-proof way ( Table 3 ); however, managers interviewed pointed out that the risk of a cyclone constitutes a natural part of running a tourism business in Fiji. One resort manager commented that it is very costly to retrofit existing structures, and it is often easier to consider climate-related issues when developing new areas or extending existing resorts.

Adaptation measures in place

The construction of new resorts continues to focus on coastal areas in high development zones ( Short, 2004 ). To prevent damage from storm surge and sea level rise, facilities are built at least 2.6 m above mean sea level (S. Huggett, Architects Pacific, pers. comm.). One interviewee (S. McGree, Fiji Meteorological Service) commented that rather than generalising a minimum height it is more useful to consider the specific geographic situation of a development site, for example the bathymetry and the topography.

The interviews and site visits showed that resorts commonly adapt to erosion and the risk of storm surge by constructing seawalls, as well as by planting trees, mainly coconut palms or mangroves ( Table 3 ). Seawalls and other hard structures often cause erosion elsewhere, and further erosion protection measures are necessary as a result of this ( Raksakulthai, 2003 ; A. Gorton, Manager, Sonaisali Resort, pers. comm.); especially when the construction does not take into account latest knowledge or technologies (Prof. B. Aalbersberg, Institute of Applied Science, University of the South Pacific, pers. comm.). The loss of sand as a result of cyclones, changing wind patterns and sea level rise is a major problem, especially on low sandy islands such as Beachcomber Island (T. Boa, Manager, Beachcomber Island, pers. comm.). Despite knowledge about the importance of mangroves for shore protection, large areas are still cut down to provide space for further development. The resulting sedimentation puts considerable pressure on coral reefs (D. Walker, Project Manager, Mamanuca Environment Society, pers. comm.).

Some resorts have measures in place to store and conserve water where possible. For example, the mulching of garden waste and layering of shredded paper, cardboard or coconut shells are measures that keep the soil moist and reduce the need for irrigation, one of the major demands for water consumption in a tourist resort. Some resorts use recycled or grey water for irrigation, hold grey water reservoirs for firefighting, and operate toilets with saltwater or recycled water for flushing. There are also technological solutions for water-conserving showers and toilets (e.g., dual flush). A major problem that undermines water conservation measures is leakage. Unknown but potentially substantial quantities of freshwater leak into the sea. More remote islands have the option of a desalination plant, with costs being only slightly higher than shipping water to the island (B. Herriman, Engineer, Beachcomber Island, pers. comm.). Rainwater collection is possible, but this adaptation measure is problematic in that considerable space is required for water storage. Underground tanks are a solution for newly designed resorts.

Reefs that are not already under pressure from pollution and sedimentation are more likely to cope with increases in water temperature than stressed reefs. Hence, pollution control is an important adaptation measure to protect the coral reefs around tourist resorts. Typically, resorts and local communities have septic tanks, and treatment systems that go beyond these simple tanks require considerable investment both in terms of capital and ongoing maintenance. Cost may be prohibitive for smaller accommodation providers, although there exist small and cost-efficient systems (e.g., sand-filters) that can cope with small amounts of sewage. Potential conflicts exist when a tourist resort invests in a sewage treatment plant, but the neighbouring community keeps polluting the water on which the resort's tourist activities are based.

The coral reefs were usually the largest concern of tourism operators when it came to changing their own or tourists’ behaviour. Most of the managers or public-sector stakeholders interviewed expressed concern about the condition of at least some of the coral reefs, although climate change and the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures were not necessarily seen as major factors. Rather, protecting the reefs was associated with avoiding physical damage, pollution, sedimentation, and freshwater influx. Resort-based boat operators are instructed not to anchor on reefs but only on designated buoys, and some resorts have given up activities such as reef walking or allow it only in designated areas. Tourists are informed about appropriate behaviour (e.g., no touch, no take) while snorkelling or diving in order to avoid damage to the corals.

About half of the businesses surveyed have evacuation plans in place. Less than half reported they offer indoor activities as an alternative in poor weather conditions.

4. Tourism's contribution to climate change

4.1. greenhouse gas emissions from tourist accommodation.

Tourist accommodation uses a wide range of energy sources, with electricity either generated from hydropower (Viti Levu, 52% of respondents) or by using a diesel generator (Mamanuca Islands or other remote areas, 60% of respondents) being the most important in terms of energy used. Petrol or diesel for business vehicles is used by 68% of respondents, and 20% use petrol or diesel for other purposes. Liquefied petroleum gas is used by most businesses (84%), mainly for cooking, hot water, or in the laundry. Ten out of 25 businesses use some form of renewable energy sources, most of which are hot water systems or solar lights.

Energy consumption and resulting greenhouse gas emissions vary widely for different accommodation businesses. There are two factors, however, that seem to have a major influence on energy consumption and CO 2 emissions, namely the standard of accommodation (resort, motel/hotel, and budget accommodation) ( Table 4 ) and geographical location (mainland Viti Levu versus the Mamanuca Islands) ( Table 5 ). On a per-visitor-night basis, motels, hotels, and budget accommodation consume considerably less than tourist resorts. This is not surprising given the different levels of service provided ( Becken et al., 2001 ). Most resorts maintain extensive outdoor and indoor areas, including swimming pools, diving centres, bars, restaurants, and other entertainment facilities. Moreover, resorts usually offer air conditioning in common areas as well as in tourists’ rooms or apartments. Budget accommodation usually operates shared facilities and has ceiling fans rather than air conditioning.

Average energy use and CO 2 emissions for different types of accommodation

a Only 14, 3 and 2 businesses provided visitor numbers necessary to derive per capita energy data.

• • 1 gigajoule (GJ) equals 1000 megajoules (MJ).
• • Only 14, 3 and 2 businesses provided visitor numbers necessary to derive per capita energy data.
• • Assumptions for calculating energy use: the average cost of electricity from the main grid in Viti Levu was assumed to be 22.09 c/kWh ( www.fdoe.gov.fj ). Diesel purchased in bulk was approximated to cost 80 c /l, and diesel/petrol used for vehicles $1/l (A. Gonelevu, Department of Energy and B. Herriman, Engineer Beachcomber Island, pers. comm.). Costs for LPG vary but were averaged as $1.50/l (information obtained from Fiji Bluegas).
• • The energy content of diesel is 38.1 MJ/l, and for LPG 26.5 MJ/litre or 49.5 MJ/kg ( Baines, 1993 ).

CO 2 emissions for tourist accommodation by geographical location

Tourist accommodation in the Mamanuca Islands is approximately 2–3 times as carbon-intensive as that based in Viti Levu (36 kg CO 2 per visitor-night compared with 14 kg, Table 5 ). The main reason for this lies in electricity generation, which is much less carbon-intensive in Viti Levu due to the high proportion of renewable energy sources (hydro and bagasse) compared with diesel generation on islands with its inherent inefficiency (about 65–70% of energy input is lost during the process of generation). Moreover, resorts on remote islands operate more or less self-sufficiently, and therefore have additional energy requirements (e.g., sewage treatment, freezing rubbish 2 ). Transport energy use is also high given that not only do tourists have to be transported to and from the resort, but so also do food supplies, energy (diesel and gas), water and other devices required for operating the resort.

The data presented in Table 4 , Table 5 are subject to uncertainty because of (i) possible errors in reporting on part of the respondent, (ii) unintentional under-reporting (e.g., diesel for boats; services contracted to other companies), (iii) missing data (e.g., three businesses reported gas use but did not provide an estimate of their consumption), (iv) other unknown sources of error. For these reasons, the benchmarks provided could be interpreted as minimum estimates of energy use and CO 2 emissions. However, the means presented in Table 5 are also biased towards resorts on more remote islands (higher response rate), which could result in higher estimates of energy use and carbon intensity. It is not possible to quantify those contrasting effects. Notwithstanding those limitations, no other data on energy use in accommodation businesses in Fiji exist and these benchmarks provide a starting point for further analyses. These figures are also in the same range as accommodation energy use derived for other countries ( Becken et al., 2001 ).

It is possible to obtain a rough estimate of energy use and CO 2 emissions associated with tourist accommodation through extrapolating the above results for the whole of Fiji. The total number of visitor nights spent in Fiji was 2,891,295 in 2002 ( Ministry of Tourism, 2003 ), whereby 82% of visitor-nights were spent in hotels, 13% in backpacker/budget accommodation, with the remainder of nights being spent in motels, on boats or in other forms of commercial and non-commercial accommodation. For the purpose of this extrapolation it is assumed that the category ‘hotel’ in the Ministry of Tourism's IVS is equivalent to ‘resort’ as shown in Table 5 , the backpacker category is the same as budget accommodation, and the remaining categories are aggregated into the motel category. With this breakdown, the total energy use due to tourist accommodation was calculated to be 1,078,373,475 (MJ per annum (or 1078 terajoules (TJ)), which is equivalent to a contribution to national energy use of about 6.5% ( Department of Energy, 2003 ). In terms of CO 2 , the accommodation industry emits roughly 68,219 t per annum ( Department of Environment, no date ). Since no recent data are available for national CO 2 emissions, the accommodation sector's contribution to these emissions is not calculated, but it would be at least in the same order as the 6.5% derived for energy use. These estimates have to be seen as approximations only.

4.2. Mitigation measures

Energy is a major cost driver for the operation of a tourism accommodation business, especially when energy is derived from fossil fuels either for transport or electricity generation. The operation of diesel generators is costly, because of inefficiencies, transportation costs (diesel shipment), maintenance, and salaries for powerhouse staff. Thus, managers have an economic interest in keeping electricity consumption low. The crux with diesel generators, however, is that once a generator is purchased, the optimum range of electricity generation is determined at about 80% of the maximum performance. If as a result of electricity conservation the generator runs below this range, the diesel is not combusted completely, which ultimately reduces the lifetime of the generator (B. Herriman, pers. comm.). To overcome this problem, one business reported that they switch to a smaller generator at night-time. However, purchasing a smaller generator is often not an alternative because of high capital costs. For these reasons some managers see little incentive in conserving energy below a certain performance of their generator (H. Sykes, Resort Consultant, pers. comm.).

Nine out of the 25 businesses in the survey did not name any measures in place for reducing energy consumption. Those managers who reported measures showed various levels of knowledge and commitment, identifying air conditioning, cooling, and the laundry as major drivers of energy use. Some budget resorts have no air conditioning or only use it at night, which keeps energy costs low and reduces the need for a high-capacity generator. Adequate building materials and structures and planting trees for shade help minimise the need for air conditioning.

Reducing the consumption of hot water (laundry and showers) and reducing the water temperature are other saving measures (e.g., some budget accommodation only provide cold showers). Other energy-use-reduction measures reported in the accommodation survey centred on lighting, including ‘energy-efficient light bulbs’, ‘sensor lighting in the garden’, ‘solar panel lights’ and ‘room keys used to operate lights in each room’. The interviews revealed that not all managers are convinced that energy-efficient bulbs are a good option, because they are expensive and do not last, as a result of fluctuating power supply from generators. In the case of smaller islands the energy costs of shipping are substantial, and managers seek to maximise load factors by combining passenger vessels with transporting food, waste, or water. One business reported that they reduce the number of shopping trips to save fuel.

Little seems to be done in terms of guest education, and as one resort manager pointed out, ‘tourists are not here to worry about air conditioning’ (E. Vuki Tavai, Human Resources Manager, Treasure Island, pers. comm.). Some managers try to educate their staff, but this proves very difficult and requires a lot of reinforcement and supervision (e.g., in the area of recycling). As noted by the Fiji Visitor Bureau (S. Toganivalu, pers. comm.), the number of resorts that are active in this regard is limited.

A number of accommodation businesses operate solar hot water systems; however, photovoltaic systems are less common. The monthly average solar radiation is about 15 MJ/m 2 and day ( Department of Energy, 2003 ), which makes solar energy relatively cost-effective, especially on islands that rely on diesel generation. Some of the interviewees believed that the use of solar energy, especially photovoltaic, is not economical (especially when technology has to be imported); and this misconception was identified as a major barrier by the Department of Environment (I. Neitoga, pers. comm.). The installation of 1-kW rooftop solar cells for electricity generation could be an effective way to supply tourist bungalows with sufficient electricity for lighting and small appliances. Such photovoltaic systems have the advantage that they are silent (as opposed to diesel generators), reliable, require little maintenance, have low operating costs and are easy to install ( United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2003 ). However, they may be vulnerable to storm damage and salt deposit.

Mini hydropower schemes are less relevant for coastal resorts, but could be an option for tourism ventures operated in inland communities (referred to as ecotourism operators by the Fiji Ministry of Tourism and Visitor Bureau). The capital costs are very high, however, and consequently the uptake is minimal (A. Gonelevu, Department of Energy, pers. comm.). The Department of Energy currently assesses potential sites for mini hydropower schemes, and it is also exploring potential for geothermal electricity generation on Vanua Levu, the second largest island of Fiji. Wind energy is not widely used in Fiji, but the Coral Coast, Mamanuca Islands, and Sonasavu are promising locations for wind-powered generation (A. Gonelevu, pers. comm.). Wind energy systems are available at different scales, ranging from small 1-kW ones to 100–700 kW schemes (medium scale), or even larger ones (UNEP, 2003). Tourist resorts would need small- to medium-scale wind systems if they want to meet their whole electricity demand by wind power. Small islands are unlikely to erect wind turbines because of lack of space and noise pollution (B. Herriman, pers. comm.). Resorts on larger areas are in a better position to pursue wind energy (A. Gorton, pers. comm.). No renewable energy sources are currently seriously discussed for transport, although one resort looked into wind-driven boats, and there are explorations into replacing fossil fuel with biofuel, for example derived from coconut (copra) oil ( SOPAC, 2004 ).

4.3. Barriers to climate change adaptation or mitigation

There are several barriers to climate change adaptation and mitigation within the tourism industry in Fiji, most importantly a lack of data to fully assess the situation. Few data exist that allow assessment of the vulnerability of tourism as a whole and specific tourism infrastructure in particular, and already-existing climate-change-related impacts. Similarly, in terms of mitigation, neither the energy nor the greenhouse gas statistics are good enough to identify major users and end uses, based on which strategies could be developed for reducing emissions at least cost. The lack of data is both a result of Government simply not having collected the required information and of the industry not supplying data when asked, for example by the Department of Energy for their energy statistics (A. Gonelevu, pers. comm.).

Possibly, because of this lack of data, little has been done to raise awareness and understanding of how climate change and tourism interact, and what could be undertaken to mitigate negative effects both in terms of adaptation and mitigation (‘lack of knowledge’ was identified by most respondents in the accommodation survey, Table 6 ). Some respondents seemed to confuse climate change with other environmental (e.g., waste management) or cultural problems (e.g., land use problems), or where not able to understand causes and effects of climate change. More than half of the respondents noted that they would be interested in further information on the topic.

Barriers to implementing climate change mitigation or adaptation

Note: One business did not answer this question ( N = 24 ).

A lack of financial resources was commonly mentioned in the interviews and the survey as another major barrier to being active in terms of climate change adaptation or mitigation. This is true not only for the private sector but also for the public sector, which lacks funding for undertaking studies or measures such as developing hazard maps or a risk management plan. Environmental management was sometimes perceived as being too expensive for small businesses, especially when it involves new technologies which may have to be imported at great cost. For some imports it is possible to get some tax exemption (e.g., renewable energy technology), but no clear guidelines exist at this stage (A. Gonelevu, pers. comm.).

The ‘lack of government incentives’ was identified as one barrier to implementing climate-change-related measures in the accommodation industry and needs to be addressed. Along similar lines, interviewees noted that the legislatory framework that exists would be sufficient if enforced, but a major problem is that regulations are often not put into practice, nor are they monitored (e.g., Environmental Impact Assessment, building codes). Lack of capacity was another barrier identified in both the survey and the interviews. Several operators commented on how difficult it was to recruit and also to keep qualified staff. Another issue was a lack of willingness on the part of qualified personnel to share their expertise and experience with potential successors.

5. Discussion

Tourism in Fiji is highly vulnerable to climate-change-related hazards such as cyclones, storm surge and flooding, sea level rise, erosion, transport and communication interruption, and temporarily reduced water availability. Another major concern for the tourism industry is the degradation of natural systems, such as coral reefs and forest ecosystems, further aggravated by climate change. Most commonly, tourism businesses are impacted upon in the form of physical damage from a cyclone or storm surge, erosion, and coral bleaching. Despite the high risk associated with tourist facilities built on the waterfront, most new developments focus on coastal areas, and it is also still common practice to cut down mangrove forests, which would serve as a natural protection against various climate-related impacts.

Tourist accommodation providers adapt to climatic conditions that may affect their business, and in doing so they are also prepared for impacts that may result from a changing climate. Typically, operators focus on relatively concrete and foreseeable high-risk impacts, such as cyclones and storm surges, for example by cyclone-proofing their structures and erecting seawalls. A number of accommodation providers have insurance cover against cyclones and storm surges. Generally, it seems that the risk of accumulative impacts or more abstract impacts are less recognised and addressed. Pollution control, sewage treatment, and water management are examples of this. The vulnerability to extreme climate-related events can be reduced when climate change adaptation is integrated in the development process from the earliest stages ( Jones, 2003 ). The exact location of the development, as well as the design (e.g., building materials, orientation, structures) and landscaping can help reduce vulnerability. There is also some opportunity to harmonise tourism development at locations that are less vulnerable to climate change (e.g., inland areas in Viti Levu) with current attempts of diversifying Fiji's tourism product, especially in relation to ‘ecotourism’. Ayala (1995) , for example, proposed that new and unique tourism products could be developed in the Fijian hinterland on elevated areas, by using the Japanese concept of ‘shakkei’ (borrowed landscape), where hotel layout, garden landscaping and scenery are integrated into an overall experience of an ecosystem that differs from the typical panorama of a beachfront.

Energy use and greenhouse gas emissions are not major environmental concerns of tourism operators, although from an operational point of view energy is recognised as an important driver of costs. Energy use and CO 2 emissions in tourist accommodation are substantial (between 34.2 and 443.0 MJ or 1.6 kg CO 2 and 28.1 kg CO 2 per visitor-night). Staying on island resorts is about 2–3 times as carbon-intensive as staying on the mainland Viti Levu. Altogether, the accommodation sector consumes about 1078 TJ per annum and emits 68,219 t of CO 2 . This is equivalent to a contribution of about 6.5% of national energy use ( Department of Energy, 2003 ).

A number of greenhouse gas mitigation measures are in place (e.g., adapting generator sizes, switching off lights, energy-efficient light bulbs, and solar hot water). However, with few exceptions, initiatives are not systematically explored and implemented, but seem to be piecemeal and ad hoc. While there is a huge potential for solar energy and wind-generated power (especially on the Coral Coast, the Mamanuca Islands, and Sonasavu), these technologies are taken up slowly, inhibited by lack of knowledge, capital, capacity and government incentives. Often, the energy demand of a single tourist resort is too small to justify investment in a wind turbine.

The policy focus and interests of resort operators in Fiji are development-driven, although there is a strong recognition of the concept of sustainable development. Climate change is mainly seen from the perspective of tourism's vulnerability and adaptation. Mitigation seems to be less pressing, although in the medium term increasing greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., as a result of increasing tourist arrivals) could undermine Fiji's credibility in international negotiations on climate change. The above order of Government and industry priorities has to be recognised when trying to implement any climate-change-related measures. Wilbanks (2003) suggested that climate change be integrated into wider sustainable development by first identifying the key local problems and then linking those to climate change.

In the case of tourism in Fiji, these major local problems are: land use issues, an aged accommodation stock, lack of new capital and investment, restricted air capacity, dependency on air travel, economic leakage, a lack of a unique selling point, environmental degradation, and political instability ( Narayan, 2000 ; Levett and McNally, 2003 ). Wider environmental problems that need to be considered are pollution, deforestation, and overexploitation of resources. Measures that have the potential to address the above issues in addition to climate change offer no-regret solutions ( Hay et al., 2003 ) and are therefore more likely to be funded (e.g., by donor agencies) and taken up by local agencies, stakeholders, and industry members. Adopting wider environmental management practices, for example, addresses climate change adaptation and mitigation, and also has the potential of providing a ‘unique selling point’ for Fiji as a sustainable tourist destination. Developing small-scale technologies for solar or wind energy on the more remote islands would also help reduce the dependency on imported fossil fuel and economic leakage.

A good example of combining climate change adaptation and mitigation is reforestation. Trees reduce vulnerability to cyclones, improve microclimates, and enhance landscapes used for tourist activities. Moreover, trees function as carbon sinks, although Dang et al. (2003) note that those species preferred for adaptive measures (e.g., erosion control or watershed management) are not necessarily the ones most suited for carbon sequestration. Beg et al. (2002, p. 139) recommend that forest protection or plantation should be done ‘under the umbrella of adaptation policies, given the controversial aspects of including it under mitigation options, such as the Clean Development Mechanism’ (p. 139). Notwithstanding this, there is some potential to include forest sinks in carbon trading schemes, whereby carbon emitters (e.g., tourist resorts) purchase carbon credits from landowners who restore forest on (marginal) land (e.g., see EBEX21, www.ebex21.co.nz ). In Fiji, such a scheme would need to address land rights issues, which may be difficult to solve in the near future (H. Sykes, pers. comm.). Despite some possible practical difficulties, the option of forest carbon sinks should be explored further, especially when seeking to offset emissions associated with tourists’ travel to and from Fiji ( Hart et al., 2004 ). In 2002, tourists’ international air travel (one-way) to Fiji consumed about 5500 TJ of energy, and this resulted in CO 2 emissions of about 384,000 t (for more detail, see Becken, 2004 ).

Recognising co-benefits of climate change measures is as important as avoiding counteracting effects; for example, heavier use of air conditioning leads to increasing greenhouse gas emissions, or the relocation of sand adds to local environmental impacts ( Table 7 ). Future work would need to take into account technological and economic aspects, as well as the expected amount of reduced or increased greenhouse gas emissions ( Dang et al., 2003 ).

Adaptation measures for tourism on tropical islands and their positive or negative ancillary effects

6. Conclusions

There is currently no common strategy to address interactions between climate change and tourism in Fiji, nor is there a sector-wide industry association that could promote any climate-change-related initiatives. However, there are isolated examples among industry members that reveal a high understanding and advanced use of technology and management to address climatically unfavourable conditions. Those operators are also best prepared for increased risks resulting from climate change. Also, a number of operators engage in wider environmental management, energy conservation, and therefore climate change mitigation, although the greenhouse gas emission aspect is rarely the reason for the mitigating measures undertaken.

Overall, there is a need for tourism-specific information on what climate change is, how it will affect tourism, and what operators could do to adapt and mitigate. In the medium term it would also be important to include climate change in the curricula of tertiary education for students in the field of tourism, resource management engineering and architecture. Since the scope and costs for many adaptation and mitigation measures are largely determined by the design of tourist facilities, the incorporation of these aspects into architectural courses is particularly important. Alongside information and education initiatives, the Government could assist businesses in undertaking energy audits, facilitating the implementation of Environmental Management Systems (e.g., Green Globe 21), and providing incentives, for example for the uptake of renewable energy sources.

Climate change could form part of a wider risk management plan for tourism. Such an initiative is currently being discussed between the Ministry of Tourism (M. Malani, pers. comm.) and the Disaster Management Office. A two-level approach could be possible, where guidelines are provided for tourism operators to develop their own risk or disaster management plan at the business level, while Government covers wider issues beyond individual businesses, such as tourism infrastructure and larger evacuation plans. The current attempt by the Fiji Visitor Bureau (S. Tonganivalu, pers. comm.) to diversify the product could be seen as part of national-level risk management, as they attempt to spread risk across different markets (e.g., event tourism, sport tourism, nature tourism) and seasons. Fewer initiatives exist to weather-proof tourism, as suggested for tourism in Phuket, Thailand ( Raksakulthai, 2003 ). Another important step towards implementing a nation-wide risk management strategy for tourism and climate change would be the mapping of all tourism infrastructure, as well as the risk of various hazards in different locations.

The Department of Environment in their climate change policy or the Ministry of Tourism in their risk management plan are best advised to pursue measures that offer win-win situations, namely for adaptation, mitigation, wider environmental management and development. Examples of such measures are reforestation, water conservation, and the use of renewable energy sources. It is recommended that the synergies between adaptation, mitigation, and sustainable development be explored further and that the effects be quantified where possible; i.e., how much carbon can be saved as a result of a particular measure and what costs are involved ( Dang et al., 2003 ). This is even more important given the lack of resources in Fiji, which requires maximising benefits from any implemented measure.

Acknowledgements

I thank Prof. Tracy Berno, University of the South Pacific, for making this research possible and providing funds as part of an EU 8th EDF Grant. I am grateful to Prof. John Hay, University of Waikato, and Dr. Daniel Scott, University of Waterloo, for their comments on a draft of this paper. The input from various stakeholders and tourism operators interviewed or surveyed is gratefully acknowledged.

1 Mangroves are paramount in protecting the shore, filtering runoff, trapping sediment, and providing habitat for fish ( World Bank, 2000 ).

2 Freezing rubbish stops development of unpleasant odour as a result of decomposition of organic waste. This practice allows island resorts to store their rubbish for several days until shipped from the island to the mainland where waste is further treated (e.g. incinerated) or deposited in a landfill.

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The tourism industry has evolved as a major contributor to economic development and employment creation globally. Over the past seven decades, the tourism industry has experienced growth in both developed and developing countries. Although tourism has significant economic benefits, it often compromises environmental quality. Thus, tourism sustainability becomes an important element in managing the industry. Tourism sustainability has emerged as a leading policy paradigm and is important because tourism is a significant contributor to carbon emissions worldwide.

1. Sustainable Tourism

2. sustainability in sids, 3. residents perceptions towards tourism impacts, 4. sustainable tourism planning model, 5. tourism and fiji.

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Fiji Hotel and Tourism Association

The Voice of the Industry

The Challenges Facing Our Tourism Sector

John Ross – 22nd September , 2018

Fiji has now become the major vacation destination in the South Pacific, with reasonable expectations of achieving a million visitor target in the next few years, is a large destination by any measure.

But there are some issues concerning the major players in tourism in Fiji and they need to be addressed. The tourism industry is made up of basically 3 segments. Read more:  The Challenges Facing Our Tourism Sector by John Ross

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More From Forbes

Voluntourism and educational travel experiences exist for all ages.

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Guests and natives alike can experience educational activities.

Educational travel and voluntourism often serve as a conduit for experiential learning. An educational vacation or community service travel can enrich knowledge of places and customs in ways that can’t be taught via textbooks, especially for younger kids who tend to soak up hands-on lessons like a sponge. Through cultural exploration and immersion, students become enriched as global citizens, while developing a stronger knowledge of language and geography as well as an increased confidence and problem solving skills.

Rustic Pathways oversees immersive and authentic student travel programs.

Rustic Pathways , a program for global teen adventure travel and community service programs, conducts leading immersive and authentic student travel programs for middle school, high school, gap year and college-aged students. The service-based programs span locations from Australia to Japan to Alaska and more. Programs are available in 25 countries, and students accrued a total of 38,060 service hours in 2023, on track to increase for 2024, while 68% of Student Travel programs focus mainly on sustainability. Rustic Pathways has announced their 2024 student programs .

Travelers who are seeking an immersive educational experience for all age groups are well advised to check out these resorts.

Guests can learn about the science of mangrove planting.

Marriott Fiji Momi Bay , Fiji

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The Kids Discovery Program was thoughtfully crafted to not only entertain but also educate young minds, fostering a sense of curiosity, environmental responsibility and cultural appreciation. Children can become Momi Eco Warriors by building nests, planting trees and learning about: Fijian flora and fauna through hikes; Momi Marine Biologists by fish feeding, coral planting, rocky shore discovery, water testing, marine watch and beach-combing; or families can learn together with coral planting, fish house building and mangrove planting.

Students venture beyond their textbooks and villages.

Turtle Island, Fiji

Three times a year Turtle Island, a private island resort in the Yasawa region of Fiji, opens to families. Children are invited to become stewards of the island and learn how to farm, fish, weave baskets and visit local villages. The property recently announced ‘Turtle Island Field Trips,’ an educational program giving local school students from neighboring islands and villages the rare opportunity to venture beyond their textbooks and villages to learn firsthand about hospitality.

Even the smallest guests are immersed in local culture.

Montage Hotels & Resorts

Through its immersive children’s program, Paintbox, children participate in activities that educate them about the destination they are in and the culture of people who live in the destination. For example:

• Montage Kapalua Bay , Hawaii. This intimate resort situated along Namalu Bay in West Maui, just ten miles from Lahaina, invites Montage’s youngest guests to learn Hawaiian language, hula and listen to talk stories from Montage Kapalua Bay’s cultural ambassadors. Activities such as explorations from mauka to makai (land to sea), turtle tracking along the Kapalua Coastal Trail or lessons on Maui’s aquatic playground at Namalu and Kapalua Bay foster a connection with the island.
• Montage Palmetto Bluff , SC. At the luxury Lowcountry resort, resident naturalist, Cassie Beato, leads young and adult guests on waterway ecotours and walking tours of Bird Island, the resort’s treehouses, River Road and more.

One of the activities is The Humming Bird Safari.

The Tryall Club, Montego Bay, Jamaica

Since The Tryall Club is located on 2,200 acres of pristine coastline with lush forests throughout, there is a big focus on learning about nature. For example, one of the activities is The Humming Bird Safari which includes bird watching, where kids learn about native birds and the opportunity for feeding. There's also opportunity for cultural immersion such as playing traditional Jamaican games such as Cricket and Rounders, Jamaican Folklore Time where the children learn about Jamaican stories and culture, reggae dance time and more.

A young guest participates in a pottery class.

Kaya Palazzo Golf Resort Belek , Turkey

Known for its stunning 18-hole golf course on site, the 5-star Kaya Palazzo Golf Resort, Belek has something for everyone in the family. The property’s supervised “Mini Club” offers educational programming for little ones to enjoy, from arts and crafts, literature workshops, physical activities and interactive shows. Fostering a rich connection with Turkish culture, children can participate in hands-on pottery workshops and learn about the country’s history of ceramic production, dating back thousands of years.

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Sri Lanka's Economy Shows Signs of Stabilization, but Poverty to Remain Elevated

COLOMBO, April 2, 2024 —Sri Lanka’s economy is projected to see moderate growth of 2.2% in 2024, showing signs of stabilization, following the severe economic downturn of 2022. But, the country still faces elevated poverty levels, income inequality, and labor market concerns, says the World Bank's latest bi-annual update.

Released today, the Sri Lanka Development Update, Bridge to Recovery, highlights that Sri Lanka saw declining inflation, higher revenues on the back of the implementation of new fiscal policies, and a current account surplus for the first time in nearly five decades, buoyed by increased remittances and a rebound in tourism.

However, poverty rates continued to rise for the fourth year in a row, with an estimated 25.9% of Sri Lankans living below the poverty line in 2023. Labor force participation has also seen a decline, particularly among women and in urban areas, exacerbated by the closure of micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs). Households are grappling with multiple pressures from high prices, income losses, and under employment. This has led to households taking on debt to meet food requirements and maintain spending on health and education.

“Sri Lanka’s economy is on the road to recovery, but sustained efforts to mitigate the impact of the economic crisis on the poor and vulnerable are critical, alongside a continuation of the path of robust and credible structural reforms,” emphasized Faris Hadad-Zervos, World Bank Country Director for Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka . “This involves a two-pronged strategy: first, to maintain reforms that contribute to macroeconomic stability and second, to accelerate reforms to stimulate private investment and capital inflows, which are crucial for economic growth and poverty reduction.”

Looking forward, the report projects a modest pickup in growth of 2.5% in 2025, with a gradual increase in inflation and a small current account surplus. However, high debt service obligations are expected to exert pressure on fiscal balances. Poverty rates are anticipated to remain above 22% until 2026. Risks to the outlook remain, particularly related to inadequate debt restructuring, reversal of reforms, financial sector vulnerabilities, and the enduring impact of the crisis. The report emphasizes that strong reform implementation will be fundamental to fostering a resilient economy through continued macro-fiscal-financial stability, greater private sector investment, and addressing risks associated with state-owned enterprises.

The Sri Lanka Development Update  is a companion piece to the  South Asia Development Update ,  a twice-a-year World Bank report that examines economic developments and prospects in the South Asia region and analyzes policy challenges faced by countries. The April 2024 edition, Jobs for Resilience , projects South Asia to remain the fastest-growing region in the world, with growth projected to be 6.0% in 2024- driven mainly by robust growth in India and recoveries in Pakistan and Sri Lanka. But this strong outlook is deceptive, says the report. For most countries, growth is still below pre-pandemic levels and is reliant on public spending. At the same time, private investment growth has slowed sharply in all South Asian countries and the region is not creating enough jobs to keep pace with its rapidly increasing working-age population. The report recommends a range of policies to spur firm growth and boost employment as well as help lift growth and productivity and free up space for public investments in climate adaptation.

Source: World Bank, Poverty & Equity and Macroeconomics, Trade & Investment Global Practices. Emissions data sourced from CAIT and OECD.

Notes: e = estimate, f = forecast.

(a)    Components of GDP by expenditure for 2020-2022 are estimates, as the data published on March 15, 2024, by authorities only included GDP by production.

(b)    Calculations based on SAR-POV harmonization, using 2019-HIES. Actual data: 2019. Microsimulation that models sectoral GDP growth rates, inflation, remittances, employment, and cash transfers 2020-2022. Nowcast and forecast (2023-2026) use nominal GDP growth rates by sector and CPI inflation.

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