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Eight incredible rewilding projects to discover in the UK

If you’re keen to get closer to nature, there are an increasing number of places where tourism and rewilding work hand-in-hand to offer up a truly regenerative travel experience.

From wild gardening to greening cities and the creation of new sustainable woodland, the UK is embracing rewilding. And, increasingly, this includes our agricultural land. Vast swathes of our rural and agricultural landscapes are being reimagined by regenerative and organic farming, and innovative rewilding initiatives, working symbiotically with tourism projects to restore our landscapes back to the nature. We look at the latest places where you can join in, give back, and celebrate the natural world, from new farm glamping sites in Norfolk, where grazing wildstock and white-tailed eagles are being reintroduced, to the world’s first rewilding centre in the Scottish Highlands.

1. Trees for Life, Scottish Highlands

Stay as a paying volunteer on conservation weeks with Trees for Life at the 10,000-acre Dundreggan rewilding estate (or at the conservation charity's bothy in Glen Affric). Watch this space for the world’s first rewilding centre, set to open here in 2022.

2. Wild Ennerdale, Cumbria

The upland site of Wild Ennerdale is alive with red squirrels, pied flycatchers, tree pipits, wood warblers, ring ouzels, wheatears, skylarks, snipes, England’s largest population of marsh fritillary butterflies and our only migrating population of Arctic charr. Stay at YHA accommodation on site.

3. Mar Lodge, Cairngorms

Stay in Britain’s largest National Nature Reserve in the heart of the Cairngorms, where reintroduced Caledonian pines are populated by red squirrels, golden eagles and black grouse. Accommodation is at the Victorian hunting lodge and cottages , run by the National Trust for Scotland.  

4. RSPB reserves, nationwide

The RSPB has championed some of the biggest species success stories in UK conservation, from the reintroduction of red kites to ospreys. Stay as a volunteer with RSPB Haweswater , in the Lake District National Park, where teeming upland wildlife thrive alongside sustainable farming.

5. Scotland, The Big Picture

The Big Picture charity, which carries out rewilding advocacy, also runs retreats across Scotland that support and celebrate wild nature, from wilderness weekends in the Cairngorms National Park to an on-foot exploration of the remote Knoydart Peninsula and mor

6. Blean Woods, Kent

Partnering with the Wildwood Trust, Kent Wildlife Trust will import and release European bison at a former pine wood plantation near Canterbury. Like beavers, this keystone species is an ecosystem engineer that helps rewild woodlands. The bison will be introduced to their new home in spring 2022, and after settling into a fenced area, the site will open to the public.

7. River Otter, Devon

Beavers, which are a ‘keystone species’ that can positively impact biodiversity and water quality, were reintroduced to the UK in 2009 after an absence of around 500 years, in the Knapdale Forest, Argyll, and into an enclosed area of East Devon’s River Otter . Since then, more have appeared elsewhere on the river, where you can stay at a farm with safari-style glamping .

8. Sheepdrove Organic Farm, West Berkshire

This established organic farm , owned by environmental campaigners Peter and Juliet Kindersley, is on a journey towards rewilding a cluster of fields, woodland and scrub at the heart of the 2,500-acre site, set on rolling chalk downland. Stay in an off-grid, eco-friendly boathouse for two, and explore the physic garden planted by renowned herb grower, Jekka McVicar.  

Further afield: three rewilding destinations in Europe

1. Carpathian Mountains, Romania Take a week’s trip with The European Nature Trust, in partnership with Steppes Travel , to the wilds of the Carpathian Mountains to explore Europe’s most extensive unfragmented forest, home to the continent’s largest population of wolves, bears and lynx.  

2. Saxony, Germany Go wild on a wolf conservation volunteer expedition to Germany, to the lowlands of Lower Saxony, with Biosphere Expeditions , to camera trap, track and monitor the predators, along with their prey species such as deer and wild boar, to help protect the returning population.  

3. Velebit Mountains, Croatia Go hiking, biking, kayaking or horse-riding in an area of Croatia that’s home to some of Europe’s most elusive and unique wildlife: dolphins, brown bears, Balkan chamois, wolf and lynx. This is just one of many ‘safaris’ offered by the European Safari Company where 5% of the cost of your trip goes directly to the local Rewilding Europe organisation, to fund projects such as bear corridors in the Central Apennines , European bison release in the Southern Carpathians or the development of wildlife reserves in the Velebit Mountains .

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The 16 Most Beautiful Natural Features in the UK

The beautiful natural features of the UK may not be the first things that spring to mind when planning a visit to England, Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. Most people planning their first visit think about the country's cities —  London , Edinburgh , Glasgow, Liverpool  — its industrial history or its stately homes, castles and cathedrals.

But the UK is a surprisingly green island with a deeply indented coastline of almost 20,000 miles (including the offshore islands ). Within its boundaries, the UK is a sort of world in miniature — with canyons, mountains, river valleys, deep, beautiful lakes and amazing beaches. These are among the best of its natural wonders.

Scafell Pike and The Screes

In July 2017, England's Lake District became a UNESCO World Heritage site.  The somewhat controversial designation was in recognition of its traditional sheep farming, but that's not why we've chosen it for this list.

Instead, we're attracted to it's wild, lonely beauty and for the range and variety of its lakes and lakeland fells (a word the Vikings brought to Britain for mountains). From the genteel loveliness of Lake Windermere (the largest natural lake in England and a resort since the railroad arrived in 1847) to the stark drama of Scafell Pike, England's highest peak, and the Screes, seen here from Wastwater. 

Wastwater, at 260 feet deep, is the deepest of the Lake District lakes. The Screes, running along the southeast shore, are made up of millions of broken stones left after the last Ice Age that rise from the bottom of the lake to a height of 2,000 feet.

How to See It

Once voted Britain's favorite view, the lake and Scafell Pike are owned by the National Trust. The Trust operates a campsite between Wastwater and Wasdale Head at one end of the lake, with wild camping, glamping and camping pods as well as facilities for camper vans.There is also limited parking around the lake. The Lake is off the A590 in Cumbria over rural and mountain roads.

Kynance Cove

If you are hooked on the latest BBC version of Poldark, then you have already visited Kynance Cove, at least in spirit. The cove, with its enormous rock towers, sea caves and low tide islands, is Nampara, Poldark's white sand beach.

As it appears in the TV drama, the beach looks extensive and permanent. But in fact, most of it is only visible and accessible at low tide. It's part of The Lizard, the most southerly spit of land on mainland Britain. It is worth planning your trip around the tides to see and swim in the stunning turquoise waters, wrapped in Cornish headlands that make up this beach — often listed as one of the most beautiful beaches in the world.

The name, "Kynance" is derived from an old Cornish word, kewnans. It means ravine which should give you an idea of why this is considered an adventure beach. A stream, with steep sides cuts through the open heathland or downs opening out onto the beach and revealing more coves and caves that flood at high tide.

The area around the cove, including the cliffs at The Lizard, are noted for wildlife watching, wildflowers and even wild asparagus. If you're lucky and watching from the cliff tops, you could spot enormous basking sharks in the clear turquoise waters. The second biggest fish in the ocean, they frequent the area in late spring and early summer.

Getting to Kynance Cove is something of an adventure, though there is a viewpoint about 220 yards along a level track from the clifftop parking. To get to the beach itself, it's either a 2 and a half mile walk along the coastal path from Lizard Point or a steep hike down the cliffs with some steps at the bottom. Another route, described as rough but more or less level, is about a 20 minute walk from the car park. There are toilets in the car park and a beach cafe and accessible toilet in the cove. The beach has no lifeguard and there is a danger of being cut off by high tides at the northwest end. Still want to go? Set your GPS device for post code  TR12 7PJ  or hop on the number 37 bus from Helston to Lizard Village green, about a mile away.

Views From Mt. Snowdon

Mount Snowdon is the highest mountain in Wales and the highest British mountain south of Scotland. The Snowdon massif rises from the center of Snowdonia National Park and the views across North Wales from its slopes and summit are spectacular.

On a clear day, you can see Ireland, Scotland, and England as well as a Welsh landscape dotted with castles and lakes (called Llyn in Welsh). There are a eight official paths to the top. The Llanberis path, known as the "tourist path" because it is considered the easiest, is also the longest — at 9 miles. 

But, in fact, there is a much easier way to enjoy the views. The Snowdon Mountain Railway takes visitors up from late March to early November and its route reveals ever changing and dramatic vistas.

If, on the other hand, you'd rather look up at the mountain than down from it, there are good views of Snowdon from the Janus Path , a 500 yard, accessible board walk around Llyn Cwellyn, a lake to the west of the summit near the Mt. Snowdon base camp. It's reached from the Snowdon Ranger Station parking.

The Snowdon Ranger Station, the start of the difficult Ranger Path and also access to the Janus Path boardwalk, is off the A4085, post code LL54 7YT for your GPS device. The Snowdon Mountain Railway  (definitely the easy option of sightseers of all ages, including children) operates from Llanberis Station on the A4086, Victoria Terrace, Llanberis, Caernarfon LL55 4TT. 

Swallow Falls in Snowdonia National Park

Swallow Falls, beside the A5 about two miles west of the Snowdonia National Park center in Betwys-y-Coed, is the tallest continuous waterfall in Wales. To get a sense of what that means, you have to walk along beside it. 

The falls, on the River (or Afon in Welsh) Llugwy, are not one, tall cascade but a winding and ever widening series of cascades that thunder down, layer upon layer, into the river valley.

The easiest way to see Swallow Falls is from the sturdy staircase that runs alongside it. From the entrance, across from the Swallow Falls Hotel on the A5, it's a short, downhill walk to the riverside steps. Using them, visitors can climb to the top of the falls or descend to the bottom, enjoying changing views as they go. There is also a more challenging approach, on foot along the north bank of the river. And for real daredevils, there are companies that (unbelievably) run whitewater kayaking adventures down these falls.

Park in one of the paved lay-bys on the A5 or across from the entrance to the path at the Swallow Falls Hotel. There is a small fee for using the hotel car park. Entrance to the falls path and staircase cost £1.50. There's a small kiosk but it is open irregularly.When it is closed, visitors with the right change can pay at a sort of combination gate/turnstile. There is also an alternative and more adventurous path of about three miles through the woodlands and up the north bank of the river from the village of Betwys-y-coed. It is considered accessible but is very steep (a grade of 1 in 10) in places with tree roots and rocks to negotiate. Ask at the National Park information centerbeside the visitor parking in Betwys-y-coed for information about this walk.

The Seven Sisters Cliffs

It's easy to imagine that when Britain broke away from mainland Europe, the two snapped apart like a piece of broken china. If you travel across the English Channel, due south from the Seven Sisters cliffs (between Eastbourne and Seaford in East Sussex) to Fécamp or Étretat on France's Alabaster Coast, you'll see an almost matching run of gleaming, white chalk cliffs. 

You have to sail out to sea for a good view of the French cliffs. But iconic views of The Seven Sisters, undulating beneath seven rolling hills of grass-covered chalk downs, can be enjoyed from several vantage points along England's deeply indented south east coast.

The Seven Sisters Country Park is included in the South Downs National Park. It's about a two hour drive from London. There is also good local bus transportation from the train stations in Brighton, Eastbourne and Seaford. This classic view, featured on postcards and calendars the world over, is from above a small group of Coast Guard cottages. There is also an easier vantage point from the National Trust site at Birling Gap .

Arthur's Seat and Salisbury Crags

TripSavvy / Jess Macdonald

Arthur's Seat, in Holyrood Park, is a volcanic hill and popular family climb in Edinburgh. From the top of Arthur's Seat there are views across the city. But Arthur's Seat itself, together with Salisbury Crags beneath it, form a beautiful and dramatic mountainscape right in the middle of Edinburgh. It's also very accessible.

Arthur's Seat and Salisbury Crag are best seen from the base of Calton Hill on Regent Road/A1. It's a gentle half mile climb from the eastern end of Princes Street near the Scott Monument.

Durdle Door

If you have a vivid imagination, Durdle Door, a natural stone arch near Lulworth Cove on the Dorset Coast, looks like a serpent, or a dinosaur rising from the sea. The idea seems less far fetched when you consider that this is part of England's Jurassic Coast , a UNESCO World Heritage site where tectonic forces have pushed some of the oldest rocks on earth to the surface.

Some of England's first dinosaur fossils were found here and fossil finds from as long ago as the Triassic Era (250 to 200 million years ago) can still be seen in the rock face or picked up on the beach. At Lulworth, most finds are from the Jurassic Era, 200 to 140 million years ago. Lucky fossil hunters have found ammonites, belemnites and ichthyosaur vertebrae.

You don't have to be into very ancient bones to enjoy the way the sun and sea create a changing play of colors on Durdle Door. It's beside a small shingle beach. But a short walk over the headlands (or from the car park above) will take you to the gentle waters of horseshoe-shaped Lulworth Bay and the soft, white pebble beach at Lulworth Cove  — all the makings for a fine day out.

Durdle Door is just west of West Lulworth on the B3070. Access by path and steps is through the Durdle Door Holiday Park , or by the Southwest Coast path and steps over the hill from the Lulworth Cove car park (about a mile and a half walk). If you choose to come by train, you can catch the Monday through Saturday bus service (104) from Wool Station on the London Waterloo to Weymouth line to the holiday park entrance. (Check National Rail Enquiries for schedules). There are alsoboat trips to Durdle Door from Weymouth Harbour and Lulworth Cove. 

The Needles

The Needles are three, sharp, impressive and gleaming white chalk sea stacks that rise out of the sea  and march toward a colourful, striped lighthouse off the west end of the Isle of Wight. They are gradually eroding into the sea. In fact, there used to be four and the one that disappeared was the needle-shaped stack that gave the group its name.  

For such a fragile, off-shore formation, it's actually quite easy to get to see the Needles. Here's how:

• From the Needles Old Battery and New Battery, a National Trust site that was a Victorian defense installation and secret rocket launch site, you can look down on the Needles from the western extremity of the Isle of Wight. There is no vehicle access but it is a three quarters of a mile walk — over a well paved path, from the parking at Alum Bay (free for National Trust members).
• From March to October, the Needles Breezer bus runs regular services to Alum Bay from Yarmouth, then it's that 20 minute walk to the Batteries.
• Take the Needles Chairlift  from the Needles Landmark Attraction (Marconi sent the first wireless messages from here) down to Alum Bay Beach. There are views on the way down and also from the beach. 
• Needles Pleasure Cruises  operate short boat trips from the jetty at Alum Bay Beach for a close-up look at the Needles and the Needles Lighthouse.

The Severn Bore

As the Severn Estuary travels from the Bristol Channel to Gloucester, the River Severn, trapped between South Wales, Somerset and Gloucestershire becomes rapidly more narrow and more shallow. At least 12 times a year, (during the spring and autumn equinox) this geographical formation, coupled with exceptionally high lunar tides, produces a wave of water at least four feet high - but sometimes as much as 10 feet. Called the Severn Bore, It races up river, against the current, at speeds of between five and eight miles per hour and surfers travel from all over the world to catch it. 

The Severn Bore is visible from a variety of viewpoints in Wales and Gloucestershire. The simply named Severn Bore website , put together by local expert and enthusiast Russell Higgins, provides comprehensive information on when the bore will occur and where it is best seen. There is a lot of useful information, such as which areas have lots of ambient light for best night viewing without a full moon and where parking areas might be flooded at high tide.

The South Gower Coast

The Gower is a South Wales peninsula west of Swansea that has exceptionally beautiful beaches and cliff formations. Rhossili Beach, pictured here, is a three-mile scallop of sand backed by sandy, beach grass covered bluffs high enough for paragliders to launch from. At low tide, shipwrecks emerge from the sand and Worm's Head, a tidal island that extends off the Western end of the beach becomes walkable - for the adventurous - at low tide. It takes its name from the Viking word for dragon -  wurm -  because from the shore, that's what its 200-foot-high cliffs resemble.

The South Gower Coast is owned by the National Trust which maintains some parking, a shop and visitor center near Rhossili Beach. National Trust parking, (£5 for all day or free for members) includes toilets and a shop. A visitors center on the first floor has information and exhibitions by local artists. There are several cafes and a pub (with arguably one of the best coastal views in Wales) in the Worm's Head Hotel, beside the National Trust parking area.

The best view of Rhossili Bay and Worm's Head is from the top of Rhossili Down, the highest point on the Gower, reached from Swansea on the B4247.

In 2011, in a survey run by a Scottish conservation trust and a walking organization, visitors voted Glencoe Scotland's most romantic glen. The glen's approximate length of 12 miles is lined with eight Munros — those are mountains of more than 3,000 feet. One of Scotland's most ancient landscapes, it is actually the remnant of a volcanic caldera formed 450 million years ago. It's also the location of a tragic 17th century clan massacre. 

Glencoe can be viewed, climbed or hiked from several different viewpoints. This one, of the Three Sisters, is seen from the Three Sisters Point of View car park on the A82 in Ballaculish, about four miles west of the Glencoe Visitor Center. There are also several low level, circular walks and a wildlife viewing platform at the visitor center itself.

Scott's View and the Eildon Hills

The Eildon Hills, three ancient volcanic plugs, preside over the relatively flat River Tweed Valley. Across the valley, between Melrose and Dryburgh Abbey in the Scottish Borders, the B6356 rises steeply offering an uninterrupted view of these unusual hills and the patchwork of fields that surrounds them.

The view was a favorite of Sir Walter Scott, creator of Ivanhoe, who lived in Melrose and often stopped on at the viewpoint to enjoy it. Legend has it that on the way to Scott's burial at Dryburgh Abbey, his horse (who was pulling the wagon carrying his coffin) stopped, out of habit, in the usual place - possibly to give Scott one last glimpse of his beloved Eildon Hills.

Scott's View is indicated by a sign and a stone-walled parking area beside the road B6356. It's at the highest point of the road, about six miles north of Dryburgh Abbey.

Loch Lomond at Tarbet Bay

It's hard to find a view of Loch Lomond that isn't totally lovely. At more than 27 square miles, it is Britain's largest lake (by surface area) with a great variety of bankside views, overlooked by mountains covered in woodlands and heather. The most memorable way to enjoy a view of Loch Lomond is when its banks and the lower slopes of Ben Lomond are clothed in their autumn colors. 

From the public parking at Tarbet Pier, at the intersection of the A82 and the A83, walk north along the loch-side path. For at least a mile along this path, the views of the loch's Tarbet Bay, with tourist boats plying the waters beneath the Ben Lomond massif, are very camera-worthy.

Stanage Edge

Stanage Edge, in the Peak District National Park on the eastern edge of Derbyshire, is the longest gritstone edge in the UK. In plain English, for non-rock climbers, it is a 3.5-mile long, continuous run of fine-grained stone cliffs and bluffs overlooking the Hope Valley. The exposed rock faces — popular with climbers — are between 50 and 65 feet high. The whole is a lot more impressive than that might suggest because the edge runs at the top of a hill, between 1,300 and 1,500 feet above the valley floor.

You'll probably need a SatNav or GPS device because, although it is not difficult to get to, Stanage Edge is off several paved but unnumbered or signposed park roads. It's about six miles southeast of the Yorkshire Bridge Inn in Bamford. Go south from the inn on the A6013 and then turn left onto New Road (it's the first left) . After about two miles, keep left at the T-junction with Long Causeway. At the Long Causeway carpark, turn right onto the unmarked road. After about a half a mile, you will see the beginning of Stanage Edge, uphill, on your left. 

There are several parking areas but for the most choice, stay on this unnamed road, bearing left at the next T-junction, until you reach Hook's Car Park (about a mile and a half from the Long Causeway carpark at the junction with The Dale). From this point your can either:

• enjoy a long view of the edge, above you
• take the stone-paved path up across the moor to the path along the bottom of Stanage Edge
• or cross through the low rocks to walk along the top of the edge and pose moodily like someone in a whisky ad.

Malham Cove and the Limestone Pavements

If you've seen Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, then you've already seen Malham Cove and the Limestone Pavements.  The cove is a huge, limestone crag, shaped like an amphitheater, 230 feet high and 985 feet wide. It's just a few hundred yards outside the village of Malham on the Pennine Way .  Steps take you to the top where you can carefully walk on the limestone pavement. This is a rare and legally protected habitat formed when rainwater dissolves limestone, exposing its structure of regular, square blocks. There are several limestone pavements in the Pennine Hills that run through the Peak District and the Yorkshire Dales National Parks.  This is one of the best. The views from the bottom and the top are terrific.

How to See It 

Malham Cove is three quarters of a mile south of the village of Malham, on Cove Road, in the Yorkshire Dales National Park. After about a half mile, look for a  public footpath marker and a small National Trust sign on the right. The rest of the way is over a gently climbing but wide, flat path of the Pennine Way.

The Giant's Causeway

The Giant's Causeway, near Bushmills on the North coast of County Antrim, Northern Ireland, isn't man made. It's not even upgraded or maintained by rock gardeners who come out when everyone is gone to tidy things up. The causeway, looking like a roadway into North Atlantic, is made of about 40,000 interlocking, hexagonal basalt columns, some more than 12 meters high. They are the remnants of an ancient volcanic lava glow, frozen in time. The tops of the columns form stepping stones, mostly hexagonal (six-sided) but also with four, five, seven and eight sides, leading from the foot of a cliff into the sea.

The Giant's Causeway was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1986, and a National Nature Reserve in 1987. Today it is owned and managed by the National Trust.

If you plan to visit, do keep in mind that reasonable mobility and fitness is required to walk on the causeway. There is, however, a new and accessible National Trust visitors' center. In 2013 it was shortlisted for the RIBA Stirling Prize in architecture.  The visitor center is one kilometer from the Causeway, It's not visible from the site so its wild aspect, like a harsh backdrop for some moody Game of Thrones scenes, is maintained. Interestingly, a lot of the area around the Giant's Causeway - caves, beaches, forests - was used in the television saga but the causeway itself has never made the cut.

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11 Nature Holidays In The UK For An Eco-Friendly Escape

From glamping to boutique hotels, discover the best uk nature breaks and getaways that support conservation..

Updated by Francesca Brooking

Edited & Fact Checked By Amber McDaniel

Updated March 26, 2024

We independently research all featured brands and products. To avoid waste, we test products on an as needed basis. This post contains affiliate links. If you buy something through our links, we may earn a small commission. Learn more about why we do this here .

Dreaming of an eco-friendly escape immersed in nature? 

The UK has some incredible natural beauty but it’s one of the most nature-depleted countries in the world. Nature holidays in the UK can help us reconnect with the outdoors and advocate for its protection. 

Natural holidays aren’t just pitching up a tent. They’re easier, more accessible and more luxurious (if you want them to be) than you might think.

The Top Nature Getaways UK For A Breath Of Fresh Air

Stay in the heart of a 23,000-acre protected reserve deep in the Scottish Highlands at Alladale Wilderness Reserve .  

One of the best family nature holidays UK residents have access to, see wild ponies, cattle, deer and beavers in their natural habitat on a glamping trip to Knepp Wildland Safaris in Sussex. 

Book a stay at the boutique Tudor Farmhouse Hotel and discover the beauty of the Forest of Dean through foraging, nature walks and a critically acclaimed restaurant. 

Nature breaks are a form of sustainable tourism that comes at an urgent time for UK conservation. 

According to a report, UK biodiversity loss is nearly at 50% and the country is at risk of ‘ an ecological meltdown .’

The UK has lost 97% of wildflower meadows since the 1930s due to agriculture and property development.

The trend in off-grid nature escapes provides farmers and landowners with a new source of revenue that helps them fund their rewilding projects.

Discover stunning countryside and opportunities to get hands-on in this guide to sustainable holidays UK readers can take when the modern world gets a little…much.

Our Curated List Of The Best Holidays In Nature UK Readers Can Book To Get Back To The Wild

1. kudhva, cornwall.

Kudhva’s Eco Retreats UK

One of the best nature holidays in the UK for quirky glamping experiences, Kudhva is an eco escape. It’s located in a 45-acre abandoned slate quarry which is now a designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and Dark Sky Nature Reserve.

Kudhva offers a digital detox immersed in nature with outdoorsy activities including wild swimming, foraging, retreats, and walks along the Cornish coast.

Stay in glamping accommodations such as the raised Kudhva Cabins, Danish Cabin and Shanti Tipis. 

The site is completely off-grid, so it runs off solar power and its natural water supply. 

You can cook your meals in the communal kitchen in the Reception Barn and order a breakfast basket filled with fresh, local produce for a hearty start to the day. 

There are also hot showers and a (sustainably sourced) wood-fired hot tub, which can be booked for one hour.

Children are allowed to stay in the Tips and Danish Cabin.

2. Knepp Wildland Safaris, West Sussex

Knepp Wildland Safaris’ Nature Holidays UK

Approximately one hour and 30 minutes from London, Knepp Wildland Safaris is one of the largest rewilding projects in lowland Britain.

Located across 3,500 acres of Sussex, the estate is a habitat for wild ponies, cattle, deer and pigs. 

Nature rules here and you’re invited to enjoy it through Knepp Estate’s series of guided safari tours. It doesn’t get much better than this if you’re looking for weekend nature breaks in the UK.

Join specific animal-focused tours including butterflies and kingfishers or opt for seasonal safaris. Other guided tours include learning about regenerative farms, rewilding, and biodiversity.

Knepp Safaris also offers its visitors the chance to stay on-site in its holiday cottages and glamping accommodation such as bell tents, shepherd’s huts, treehouses, and yurts.

You can bring along your tent and pitch up in its wildflower meadow for about £20 a night, so it’s ideal for cheap eco holidays. 

Pick up supplies at the on-site campsite shop and order breakfast baskets for two people. There’s also a communal glamping kitchen with pizza ovens, hot showers, bathtubs, and flushing toilets.

3. Alladale Wilderness Reserve, Ardgay

Alladale Wilderness Reserves’ Nature Breaks

Named one of National Geographic’s six places to rediscover nature, Alladale Wilderness Reserve is a 23,000-acre reserve in the heart of the Scottish Highlands.

Stay in one of Alladale’s three fully catered lodges, including Alladale Lodge itself—a comfortable Victorian manor. 

Or choose to self-cater in the off-grid Deanich Lodge, one of the most remote buildings in Britain. 

Properties sleep between two and 26 guests so they’re ideal getaways for groups of friends. There’s limited WIFI so you can escape from it all in this wilderness. 

As for what to do on these nature getaways, UK residents and visitors alike can roam to their heart’s content, whether through hiking, mountain biking, foraging, wild swimming, photography classes, or wildlife spotting. 

Alladale is dedicated to conservation from planting trees to wildlife projects and peatland restoration. 

Staying here directly contributes to conservation projects across the UK and Europe through its charity partner The European Nature Trust.

4. Tudor Farmhouse Hotel, Gloucestershire

Tudor Farmhouse Hotel’s Eco-Friendly Holidays UK

One of the top sustainable holidays in the UK for a luxury rural escape, Tudor Farmhouse Hotel is a boutique hotel in the Forest of Dean.

It was once a 13th-century farmhouse but now it features 20 luxurious ensuite guestrooms. 

All beds have sumptuous pocket spring mattresses and duck feather pillows. The rooms also have Nespresso machines and some have roll-top bathtubs for a truly decadent stay. 

Come here to relax and enjoy the critically acclaimed restaurant which has been named a ‘culinary oasis.’ Head chef Gavin Roberts serves up vegetables from the hotel’s Kitchen Garden combined with locally sourced produce. 

The rest of the time, guests can enjoy hiking, wild swimming, paddle boarding, wildlife safaris, e-bike safaris, and guided stargazing.

You can also book expert-led experiences such as foraging, forest bathing, and guided forest walks.

5. Sheepdrove Organic Farm, Berkshire

Sheepdrove Organic Farm’s Nature Breaks UK

Award-winning, family-run Sheepdrove is a Soil Association-certified organic farm committed to sustainability.

You can find everything here from three gorgeous Green Tourism Gold-winning accommodations to an eco-events venue which can host weddings, office spaces and funerals.

Enjoy a relaxing holiday at Woodend, a large former farm building that sleeps up to 18 guests with nine ensuite bedrooms—perfect for big family nature holidays. 

Nutwood Lodge sleeps up to 12 guests in its five bedrooms. There’s a spacious kitchen and dining area, log-burning stove, and private garden. 

If something cosy is more your scene, the Boat House sleeps four and is located on the shores of a tranquil lake.

These eco-stays are 100% carbon neutral, run on renewable energy, and are located on organic farmland which is part of the North Wessex Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.

6. Trees for Life, Scottish Highlands

Trees for Life’s Conservation Holidays UK

Trees for Life is on a mission to restore Scotland’s Caledonian Forest which once covered much of the Highlands. To date, they’ve planted nearly two million trees.

The organisation is also involved in conservation initiatives such as returning the lynx to Scotland, red squirrel reintroduction and rewilding the Affric Highlands along with Rewilding Europe.

If you’re keen to spend some time in nature and do some good for the environment, Trees for Life runs volunteer conservation holidays called Rewilding Weeks.

You and up to ten other volunteers will be led through a series of conservation tasks by two expert guides. The week starts with an introductory walk and days last from 9am to 5pm. 

All accommodation and meals are provided at Dundreggan Lodge with vegetarian and vegan options available. 

Trees for Life also offers transport to and from Inverness. 

Participants must be 18 years old and over to join the Rewilding Weeks. There’s no maximum age limit but be advised that the work can be quite physically demanding.

7. Wildwood Hideaway, Cornwall

Wildwood Hideaway’s Eco Holidays UK

Enjoy life in the slow lane with fairytale woodcutter-inspired Wildwood Hideaway deep in the woods in Cornwall.

The dog-friendly eco-retreat in the UK is surrounded by 200 acres of pasturelands, fields and trees and looks out onto stunning countryside. Inside, it’s hand-built with a fully-equipped kitchen, shower room, and cosy double bedroom.

The living space is the perfect space to while away the evening with its squashy sofa and log-burning stove. There’s no WIFI here, giving you the chance to fully switch off and immerse yourself in nature. 

Wildwood Hideaway invites you to be as relaxed or as active as you like. Lie in the hammock and listen to birds flitting around in the trees or explore your local Cornish surroundings. 

Wadebridge, Polzeath and Daymer Bay are reachable by car. You could also take the ferry over to Padstow or walk the South West Coast Path for beautiful coastal views.

8. Coombeshead Farm, Devon

Coombeshead Farm’s Wildlife Retreats UK 

Located just 30 minutes from Devon’s surfing beaches, Coombeshead Farm is the ultimate place for wildlife retreats in the UK .

On its 300-acre rewilding area, animals roam free, and you can see them via ecologist-led wildlife encounters and learn about Coombeshead’s work introducing lost species such as wildcats to the UK.

White storks, water voles, wildcats, owls, and beavers are just some of the magnificent creatures you may encounter.

Stay on-site in one of the farm’s cosy shepherd’s huts. Located on the edge of the farm’s rewilding area, each hut has a double bed, a wood burner and a separate basic kitchen. 

You can also camp in the meadow. Each spacious pitch can accommodate a maximum of four people and it has its own firepit. 

The communal area has barbecue facilities and a pizza oven and there are hot showers and composting eco toilets.

9. SCOTLAND: The Big Picture, Scottish Highlands

SCOTLAND: The Big Picture’s Nature Getaways

Deep in the Cairngorms National Park, rewilding charity SCOTLAND: The Big Picture offers nature lovers the chance to immerse themselves in the natural beauty of the Scottish Highlands on a small group tour. 

Choose from three-to-five-night UK nature holidays which take you to pioneering rewilding projects in the Cairngorms and the Great Glen. Each itinerary includes picnics alongside cascading waterfalls, wildlife spotting, and learning about exciting nature recovery initiatives.

As for where you’ll stay, Ballintean Mountain Lodge is a cosy, family-owned converted farmstead with ensuite bathrooms in each of its rooms. 

All meals are provided and you can expect hearty Scottish dishes made with locally sourced ingredients. They can also accommodate dietary requirements. 

SCOTLAND: The Big Picture is a member of the European Rewilding Network and the Scottish Rewilding Alliance. 

10. Wheatland Farm, Devon

Wheatland Farm’s UK Nature Holidays 

Award-winning Wheatland Farm is a long-term conservation project in Devon that’s financed and sustained by its collection of three beautiful wooden eco-lodges, a holiday cottage and a straw bale insulation lodge.

Balebarn Eco Lodge is the biggest accommodation, sleeping up to weight people. The wheel-chair accessible, low-carbon renovated cowshed features straw bale insulation, a wood burner, hot tub, and campfire spot outside with views of the pond. 

Beech Eco Lodge sleeps up to six guests and has a private veranda with views of the meadow, while Nuthatch, Honeysuckle, and Otter sleep up to four. 

All holiday rentals have solar hot water and run on 100% renewable energy.

You can spend your eco holidays cycling, sailing on the pond, soaking in hot tubs, doing free guided nature walks, cooking up BBQs, and listening to birdsong from the veranda.

Wheatland Farm has won many regional and national sustainable tourism awards over the years. It has pledged for nature through the North Devon Biosphere Reserve. 

11. Room With A View, Dartmoor

Room With A View’s Weekend Nature Breaks UK

This dog-friendly cabin in Dartmoor is nestled on a quiet corner of a working farm.

Positioned at the foot of the famous Haytor, Room with a View offers stunning panoramic views of Dartmoor National Park and it’s the perfect base for walks and exploring.

The cabin features an open-plan living space with a cosy wood-burning stove, fully-equipped kitchen, double bed and ensuite shower room. It’s completely powered by solar panels so you can enjoy off-grid nature weekend getaways here. 

Room with a View sits in an enclosed garden, making it ideal for dogs. There’s a picnic bench and firepit outside for dining al fresco. 

Stay here for a rural retreat. Widecombe in the Moor with its cafes and shops less than two miles away. You also have Dartmoor at your fingertips with Fenwothy Reservoir and picturesque country pubs nearby.

Our Considerations For Choosing The Best Eco Holidays In The UK

How do we know which nature breaks truly benefit the environment and how can we ensure they value sustainable tourism over profits?

We’ve created a set of criteria which helps us find businesses that are a force for good as it takes a look at all aspects of their operation.

Certifications: 

Soil Association , Green Tourism

Carbon Goals & Achievements: 

It’s good to see hospitality businesses take steps to reduce their overall carbon footprint through building off-grid accommodation that runs on renewable energy. 

Many of the glamping experiences have eco-friendly bathroom facilities with hot water and flushing toilets so guests can still enjoy those little luxuries while outdoors. 

Diversity, Equity, & Inclusion: 

Access to nature and sustainable getaways shouldn’t be reserved for the few. We love to see eco-lodges with accessibility features for those with less mobility. 

Cheap nature getaways, family-friendly rooms and car-free glamping all get a big thumbs up from us too. 

Pay It Forward: 

Donating to charity isn’t a requirement of a sustainable business, but we still like to see them take an active interest in their environment. 

Many of them in this list do this already by using accommodation to fund their own rewilding initiatives and using their platforms to educate their guests about the environment. 

Closing Thoughts On Nature Getaways & Eco Holidays UK

Restoring nature-depleted landscapes isn’t about removing people. 

Rewilding and conservation are about creating harmony between people and natural ecosystems. After all, we are a part of the natural world no matter how far removed from it we feel. 

Nature is at its best when we go out and enjoy it. It’s good for our health and our appreciation of it in turn helps us protect it. Nature lovers are nature’s biggest advocates. 

Nature breaks can take different forms whether it’s planting trees in the Scottish Highlands or glamping in Cornwall. 

The one similarity which connects them is that your money goes directly into protecting the environment. These eco holidays help make conservation happen. 

This summer, get outdoors and reconnect with nature on an eco-friendly UK holiday —and be sure to share this article with friends and family to encourage them to tag along.

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Team Wanderlust | 05 April 2017

10 top trips to discover wildlife and nature in the uk.

Compact, diverse and packed with wildlife, the UK is one of the best and easiest places on the planet to experience the natural world. Here are ten trips to see the best of the UK...

1: Photograph Dorset’s spring treasures

Award-winning photographers Nick Garbutt and Alex Hyde are on hand to guide you through the ancient meadows of Kingcombe in Dorset , 200 years old and untouched by pesticides, as you wander this tranquil and inspiring 'workshop' to fine tune your photographic skills.

The hedgerows, fields and hay meadows surrounding the Kingcombe Centre are home to a huge array of wildlife, some common and easy to see, others a little more demanding, but all beguiling subjects for you to photograph. The air will be buzzing with bees, butterflies and other insects.

No matter what level you are, you'll come away with new techniques and skills, and a portfolio filled with small creatures and plants.

Who: Wildlife Worldwide

When: 12 & 18 May, 2017

How long : 3 days

How much: £495 (exc. flights)

2: Explore remote Orkney and the Shetland islands

As the UK’s northernmost isles, the Orkneys and the Shetlands offer intriguing archaeological sites, spectacular seabird colonies, and waters teeming with otters, White-beaked and White-sided Dolphin, as well as Humpback, Minke and predatory Killer Whales.

You’ll visit the spectacular seabird ‘cities’ of Noss, Sumburgh and Skara Brae, a fantastic chance to tick off rare breeds and see birds in spectacular numbers. 

A highlight of the trip is a dusk visit to Mousa. Here, inside the ancient Pictish broch stonework, you'll be treated to the rhythmic ’churring’ of tiny Storm Petrels, a sound as old as time.

Who: Speyside Wildlife

When: Jun/Jul 2017

How long:  10 days

How much: £2,295 (inc. domestic flights)

3: Venture south to the Isles of Scilly

Scattered to the south west of Cornwall , the Scilly Isles are unlike anywhere else in the UK. Only five are inhabited, but they all have their own unique charm and character.

Beautifully unspoilt and with very little traffic, it's all about the outdoor life here. The climate is the best in the UK, and you'll enjoy empty white sandy beaches, turquoise seas and nature trails pretty much to yourself.

St Mary’s is the largest and busiest of the inhabited islands, but still offers mile upon mile of coastal paths and nature trails. The island of Tresco is a mere stone’s throw away and boasts landscapes sculpted by the wind and waves. 

St Agnes is the UK’s southwestern outpost. A whitewashed lighthouse meets the edge of the Atlantic and on the west side, granite cairns overlook rocky edges, marking the site of the countless ships lost on this treacherous spot.

When: Departures throughout the year

How long: Flexible

How much: POA

4: Get active in the Cotswolds

Can a destination be both relaxing and physically challenging? The Farncombe Estate, certainly tries to be. It is a back-to-nature bolthole on a Cotswold hill   that provides a range of structured or unstructured outdoor activities, all within reach of your room in the golden stoned manor house.

Visitors can choose between hiking in the rolling Cotswold hills or learning a new skill like archery. Activities are held in the morning and afternoon, leaving plenty of time to walk to Broadway town for lunch or a walk to the local Broadway Tower. 

Qualified instructors are on hand to make your Cotswold experience as fulfilling and enjoyable as possible.

Who: Chapters Experience Holidays

When: 7 Jul & 18 Aug 2017

How long: 3 nights

How much: £496 (exc. flights)

5: Conquer Hadrian’s Wall

Explore the raw beauty and multi-layered history of Wall Country , a distinctive English region, dominated by the wall that the Romans built over field, crag and river nearly 2000 years ago.

From bustling medieval market towns, through gentle farmland and craggy rocks strewn with tumbled Roman stones to thick woods and wild loughs, this is a landscape that inspires awe and is a character in its own right.

This tour offers a wealth of different elements: a remarkable landscape, a deep history and traces of Roman power. Wander amongst the archeological finds at Vindolanda, soak up the beauty of Cragside or Lanercost priory, and dine on the local food and drink, influenced by the region's chaotic history.

Who: Peter Sommer Travels

When: 8 Jul 2017

How long: 7 days

How much: From £2,495

6: Paint watercolour landscapes in the Lake District

What better way to explore and understand the spectacular Lake District than to paint it? Under the watchful eye of watercolour specialist Fiona Pruden, you will learn landscape painting techniques, from the very basics needed for complete beginners to more advanced skills for the more experienced artists, all in one of the most beautiful corners of England.

Based at Hassness Country House, there will be short strolls to perfect locations from where to learn and develop your technique. There will also be time to explore the beautiful Buttermere landscapes, within a stone's throw of the house for even more inspiration.

When: 14 Oct 2017

How long: 4 nights

How much: £650 (exc. flights)

7: Hike Wainwright’s Coast-to-Coast

Looking for a long-distance challenge in one of the most beautiful corners of England? The 194 mile Coast to Coast walk from St Bees on the Cumbrian coast to Robin Hoods Bay on the North Sea shore could be for you, taking in three National Parks and some of the country’s most inspiring scenery.

This hike tackles the 110-mile eastern section from Kirkby Stephen to Robin Hoods Bay. You’ll walk from inn-to-inn, staying in B&Bs, guesthouses and small hotels. 

With the Lake District behind you, you’ll cross the Pennines, the backbone of England, into the glorious countryside of the Yorkshire Dales National Park.

Continuing east, you’ll enter the heather moorland of the North Yorkshire Moors National Park, before dipping down to Robin Hood’s Bay on the North Sea coast. Dip your toes in the sea, have a pint in the pub, and then take a well-earned snooze.

Who: Ramblers Walking Holidays

When: Spring and autumn 2017

How long: 9 nights

How much: From £999 (exc. flights)

8: Come face-to-face with Skomer’s puffins

The Atlantic puffin is one of the most photogenic seabirds in the world, a delightfully eccentric subject that will bring smile to your face and a sparkle to your photos. Skomer is the perfect place to photograph them, especially when award-winning wildlife photographer Bret Charman is on hand to give you tips and advice.

Spending three full days on the island , you can escape the throng of day visitors and photograph puffins unhindered. The birds are used to human presence, so you'll get plenty of superb photographic opportunities. 

As well seeing as puffins, there will also be a chance to witness the phenomenon of Manx shearwaters returning to the island as darkness falls. Around 70,000 birds arrive after sunset, looking for their breeding burrows, a magical moment only experienced by those lucky enough to be overnighting on the island.

When: Jun 2107

How long: 3 days

How much:  From £445 (exc flights)

9: Seek out Scotland’s Big Five in the Cairngorms

This all-inclusive wildlife-watching holiday takes you right into the heart of the Cairngorms National Park , searching for Scotland’s prize mammals, including the Big 5 from the  Year of Natural Scotland's Big 5 , from a few years back. 

In the wild uplands, Mountain Hare hide from fearsome Golden Eagles and Red Deer stand silhouetted in dramatic mist. Around Ballintean's woods, you’ll spot Red Squirrels, busy at special feeders, and Roe Deer, grazing in the meadows. After dinner, you’ll visit the hide to see elusive Pine Marten. 

You’ll also spend a day on Moray Firth searching for dolphins, otters and minke whales, before returning for a night ‘safari’ in pursuit of badger, deer and owls.

When: 5 Aug 2017

How long: 8 days

How much: From £1,195 (exc. flights)

10: Walk the four corners of Anglesey

Anglesey’s coastal path is one of the best kept secrets of Wales. The country's largest island is steeped in history, wildlife and natural beauty, and this walk takes in the four corners of its officially recognised 'Areas of Outstanding Beauty'. 

With towering cliffs, sandy beaches, woodlands, mountains, marshes and grassland, you're bound to enjoy the variety on offer on the island.

During your four days of walking, you'll take in limestone escarpments, wide beaches and sand dunes on the southern coast, with dramatic sea cliffs and remote landscapes on the northern coast, before finishing at the village of Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwll-llantysiliogogogoch. The lengthy name was invented in Victorian times to encourage tourism, a successful endeavour, as travellers are still making visit here some 150 years later.

When: Summer and autumn 2017

How long: 5 nights

How much: From £559 (exc. flights)

Main image: Old Man of Coniston (Dreamstime)

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9 Breath-taking natural attractions in the UK

When you’re travelling in the UK, you might automatically think of visiting bustling cities, like London or Edinburgh. However, the UK is also home to some awe-inspiring natural attractions and incredible rural areas where wildlife and organic scenery are beautifully preserved. As well as its more built-up regions, the UK is home to some amazing natural wilderness areas, such as the Cairngorms in Scotland or Snowdonia National Park in Wales. We explore nine of the best natural attractions in the UK for hikers, wildlife lovers and all-around adventurers.

Best natural attractions in the UK: England

From the stunning Lake District to the southern coast, England has some amazing natural attractions. If you love hiking, consider visiting these English beauty spots.

The White Cliffs of Dover, Kent

Once known as the Garden of England for its lush farmland and rural beauty, Kent has some beautiful sites to see and a warm climate throughout the summer months. The White Cliffs of Dover are one of the most incredible coastal attractions in Kent, looking out across the English Channel towards Calais in France. The White Cliffs are an excellent day out for travellers of all ages, as the cliffs are clearly marked with footpaths offering scenic hikes for varying abilities. The cliffs are also an important preserve for native wildlife species, such as the rare Adonis blue butterfly, peregrine falcons and wild ponies.

Visitors can trek along the coastline and stop off at attractions like Fan Bay Deep Shelter WW2 Museum or South Foreland Lighthouse, both located along the route. You could also fit in a visit to Dover Castle. On a clear day, you can see right across the ocean to the French Coast. The White Cliffs area also has a cafe and visitors centre with parking available throughout the day.

Scafell Pike, Lake District

Scafell Pike is the UK’s highest mountain and is a fantastic day out for experienced climbers and hiking enthusiasts alike. Standing at 978 metres, Scafell Pike offers incredible views from its peak, with visitors able to see all four UK countries on clear days. The mountain has three established routes to its summit: one from Borrowdale in the north, one from Wasdale in the southwest and another from Langdale in the east. Experienced climbers may find the Borrowdale route the most direct and challenging, as it has the steepest ascent to the peak, while the quicker Wasdale Head route might be more appropriate for inexperienced walkers or families with children.

Scafell Pike is one of the best natural attractions in UK regions to visit all year round. Although it is not advisable to climb the summit in winter, when the weather may be unpredictable, the surrounding valleys offer beautiful natural spaces for walking in any season. If you do plan to tackle the peak, ensure that you have proper hiking shoes and any climbing equipment you might need for your route. While there is no visitors centre near Scafell Pike itself, you will find a National Trust self-catering campsite and plenty of pubs and restaurants in the surrounding area.

Durdle Door, Dorset Jurassic Coast

The Durdle Door in Dorset is one of the highlights of the Jurassic Coast. It’s a magnificent limestone arch that stands in the English Channel and can be accessed on foot via the Southwest Coastal walking path. It is one of the most popular natural attractions in UK coastal areas, with the Southwest path attracting thousands of walkers every year. This makes going in the off-season a good option if you want to beat the crowds.

Wildlife enthusiasts visiting this area can look out for native species such as guillemots, puffins and dolphins. The Durdle Door also has two shingle beaches on either side, making it a lovely spot for sea swimming or seaside picnics. Further along the coastal path to the west, you can also see natural rock formations, like Butter Rock and Bat’s Head point. Meanwhile, to the east, you can grab a bite to eat at the Lulworth Cove visitor centre or visit Dorset’s famous Fossil Forest.

Ingleborough Cave, Yorkshire Dales National Park

Yorkshire Dales National Park is home to an incredible network of underground caves, including the spectacular Ingleborough Cave , located in the southwest park area. Visitors can reach the cave by the Ingleborough Estate Nature Trail, which passes by Clapham Beck Lake and through a scenic woodland area. Tour guides will lead you through the caves, which are well lit and have concrete pathways running throughout, making them perfect for visitors of all ages and abilities. The cave network also connects with amazing natural wonders, such as the Gaping Gill cave, where run-off spills down from the streams above forming an underground waterfall.

Yorkshire Dales National Park is also a fantastic area for wildlife enthusiasts to explore. The park is home to red squirrels and peregrine falcons, as well as various rare wildflowers. You can also find places to eat and drink in the nearby Clapham village, where the Ingleborough trail starts. Yorkshire Dales National Park is also home to the Green Lane Hiking area, which is great for experienced hikers.

Best natural attractions in the UK: Scotland

Famous for the majestic Highlands and remote, wilderness locations, Scotland is the perfect place to visit for a wild getaway. Magical Scottish destinations to visit are below.

Glencoe Valley, Scottish Highlands

Dramatic mountain scenery and a wealth of Scottish history await visitors who travel to Glencoe Valley. The valley is home to eight Munro Mountain peaks and is located just outside Glencoe village, on the banks of Loch Leven. Visitors to Glencoe can camp at one of the campsites inside the valley, find accommodation at a nearby hostel or simply enjoy a day trip. The valley provides incredible walks for less-experienced hikers or the opportunity to climb a mountain summit.

You’re likely to get the best weather and views if you visit Glencoe in the late spring or summer months. Hikers should still carry light waterproofs, however, and make sure they have waterproof shoes. History buffs can visit the Glencoe visitor centre or Glencoe Museum to learn about the historic clan massacre that occurred in Glencoe in the 1600s. Glencoe is also associated with Scottish myths and folk legends and has been used as a location to film movie blockbusters, including Rob Roy and Harry Potter.

Loch Lee, Cairngorms National Park

If you’re looking for natural attractions in the UK that offer a truly wild experience, Loch Lee in Scotland’s Cairngorms is an ideal option for you. The loch itself is a beautiful spot to walk around, with a level, well-maintained path that’s perfect for visitors of all abilities. This path leads through a volcanic valley to the stunning Falls of Unich, which is a perfect spot to take photos or enjoy a summer picnic.

More experienced climbers can hike up the side of the falls and continue up the hillside, following a series of waterfalls all the way to the peak. The path is steep and rugged, so even serious hikers may want walking poles with good grip.

Once you reach the top, the way to the connecting path that leads you back down is marked with cairns. While there isn’t a visitor centre nearby, travellers in the area can stop off at Invermark Castle, located near the route entrance. The Cairngorms is also home to native wildlife, such as otters, lapwings and greylag geese.

Best natural attractions in the UK: Wales

Wales is a haven for nature conservation and a brilliant place to visit if you love the great outdoors. Check out these natural attractions in Wales, UK.

Llechwedd Slate Caverns, Snowdonia

If you’re looking for the best natural attractions in UK regions, Snowdonia is definitely somewhere that should be on your list. Snowdonia’s Llechwedd Slate Caverns offer a deep dive into Wales’s historical slate mining industry, as well as spectacular mountain views and a tour of the caverns’ underground lake. The interior caves offer light displays, zip lines and incredible rock formations. Visitors can also grab something to eat at the on-site visitor centre.

The caverns are located inside Snowdonia National Park, which is also a rich conservation area for numerous species. If you’re exploring the park in spring or summer, you may be able to see wild goats, polecats and pine martins.

Bardsey Island, Llyn Peninsula

If you want to get away from it all during your trip to Wales, Bardsey Island is the perfect relaxing natural space to clear your head and enjoy some local wildlife watching. Located just off the coast of the Welsh mainland, Bardsey Island can be reached by boat. You can book day trips, which will give you 3-4 hours to explore the island, or you can find accommodation on the island itself. The temperate climate in spring and summer makes this a great place for walking and camping at one of the mainland campsites nearby.

Bardsey Island is home to wildlife species such as puffins, choughs, seals and shearwaters. It’s the perfect place to bring your binoculars for a day of birdwatching. You could also visit the famous Goleudy Ynys Lighthouse, which overlooks St George’s Channel. Make sure you take some waterproofs with you, as the boat journey to Bardsey Island can be choppy.

Best natural attractions in the UK: Ireland

Known as the Emerald Isle, Ireland certainly lives up to its reputation for beautiful natural sites. Read about one of the most enchanting natural attractions in Ireland below.

Slievenacloy Nature Reserve, Belfast

Visitors travelling to Belfast can enjoy an escape from the city by heading to the beautiful Slievenacloy Nature Reserve in the Belfast Hills. Slievenacloy is located around a 20-min drive from Belfast, making it the ideal place for a summer day trip or a crisp autumn stroll. The area is famous for its rare and beautiful wildflowers and its wild mushrooms.

A popular hiking area here is Colin Glen Forest Park, which is located at the entrance to the nature reserve. Experienced hikers can tackle the Divis mountain peak, in the north of the park. The area is also home to the Colin Glen Mountain Entrance activity park, where visitors can enjoy treetop ziplines and rollercoasters, all in beautiful natural surroundings.

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What is nature tourism and why is it so popular?

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Nature tourism is a fantastic type of tourism and it is on the rise! But what is it and why is it so popular? Read on to learn more…

What is nature tourism?

Why is nature tourism important, what is the difference between nature tourism and ecotourism, types of nature tourism, bird watching, scuba diving, scenic driving, bush walking, visiting parks, fishing , cycling , nature tours, nature tourism- further reading.

Nature tourism is all about visiting natural areas and is closed aligned with the concept of rural tourism . Places that nature tourists might visit include might include beaches, forests or national parks. Activities focus on the natural environment rather than visiting man-mad features; think stargazing and hiking, for example. There are locations right across the globe which are perfect for nature tourism.

The CBI (Centre for the Promotion of Imports from Developing Countries) in the Netherlands define nature tourism as follows:

Nature tourism, also called nature-based tourism, is tourism based on the natural attractions of an area. It consists of responsible travel to experience natural areas and their landscape, flora and fauna, protecting the environment and improving the quality of life of locals.

Nature tourism is important as it allows people to see and appreciate the beauty of our natural environment. Through this kind of tourism, we are able to escape the pollution and pressures of city life – it is good for our physical and mental wellbeing to be out in nature, breathing in fresh air and seeing lush greenery or sparkly blue seas. Nature tourism also encourages visitors to take an interest in the natural environment, which may then translate to them making a more conscious effort where environmental issues are concerned. With climate change being an ever-present and ongoing issue, this is definitely a good thing.

Following on from this, nature tourism gives land owners, local communities and local governments more reason to preserve and take care of natural areas. If they know people will come to visit, it is in their best interest to look after these places and is a great incentive for developing their sustainable tourism provision. Visiting tourists can do wonders for local community pride this way.

As with all tourism, nature tourism brings in money . This economic boost trickles down through a whole community; people need places to stay, and food to eat, and they want to buy souvenirs. Hikers may need to buy replacement walking boots, and weary explorers will always need somewhere to rest their heads at night. Jobs are created and economies are boosted through natural tourism, in the surrounding areas of the specific locations too.

Is nature tourism different from ecotourism? Put simply, yes. They are very similar, but ecotourism is perhaps a more specialised branch of nature tourism if we were looking to clearly define the difference in some way. Nature tourism is about visiting an area – responsibly, yes – rather than actively aiming to learn about the environment and participating in its protection. A nature tourist might visit a beach and admire its beauty, while an ecotourist might join in with a beach clean-up. The lines are blurred, of course, as they so often are when we try to differentiate between types of tourism .

There are different types of nature tourism. This is where we will see similarities with another kind of tourism: adventure tourism. You can read all about adventure tourism here if you’re interested! However, the similarity is that both can be split into two ‘types’: hard and soft.

Soft nature tourism might involve bird watching, visiting a beach to sunbathe, gentle walks through country parks and so on. Hard nature tourism is a bit more tough going: mountain climbing, bush walking and scuba diving, for example. Below I’ll go into some of these specific examples, so you can see how diverse nature tourism is!

Nature tourism examples

There are many examples of nature tourism to be found. Keep reading to see what they are, and whether they fall into the hard or soft category.

Bird watching is an example of soft nature tourism. People of all ages and abilities can do this, with or without a guide. You just need some background knowledge of bird species (or a book explaining them) and perhaps some binoculars. the Gambia is a hotspot for bird watching!

This is more of an example of hard nature tourism. It’s much more adventurous, and requires specialist equipment and a guide or a lot of training/experience. Head under the water to see what kind of nature is on display down there: coral, fish, shells and so much more. It’s subjective, but Barracuda Point in Malaysia is apparently the most beautiful place in the world to scuba dive… and I am a big fan of diving in Dahab , Egypt too!

This is another ‘soft’ activity in that it is low-risk and doesn’t require physical exertion. The North Coast 500 in Scotland is an example of a famous scenic drive – this is a great way to experience nature. From rolling hills to winding rivers, there is so much to see out of the window from the comfort of your car. Another fantastic example is the Kings Highway in Jordan , where you will see endless desert, canyons and incredible rock formations.

Camping is, again, an example of soft nature tourism. While it’s a little more ‘involved’ than scenic driving, for example, it is still relatively low risk and most of us are able to participate. Mount Cook National Park in New Zealand is said to be one of the most beautiful places in the world to camp, with its green landscapes and snowy mountain scenery. Climbing Mount Kilimanjaro gives you some fantastic camping opportunities too- just make sure you buy the best wild camping tent !

While controversial, hunting tourism is an example of nature tourism as it takes place in natural spaces. It is definitely one for the hard category, as you need special equipment to do so and it can obviously be quite dangerous if you don’t know what you’re doing. It is also often a discussion point for ethical tourism .

For the most part, this is a very safe activity and therefore falls into the soft category again. Guided tours are available in all of the very best stargazing locations, such as El Teide National Park in Tenerife, and it has even spawned its own branch of tourism. This is known as dark sky tourism, and there are many examples of activities that fall within this. They include stargazing, of course, alongside seeing the Northern Lights, watching an eclipse, astronomy tours and staying in accommodations that offer a clear view of the night sky such as glass domes.

This can be dangerous in that it is all about going off the beaten track, and walking through bushes/on rough ground. Therefore we can categorise this as hard nature tourism; it is something you would do when hiking, and gives you a bit of an adrenaline kick!

One of the easiest and most common forms of nature tourism is simply visiting a park. Whether this is a UK national park or your local green space at home, visiting a park is a definite example of this type of tourism. You’ll see birds, insects, flowers, trees, grass and more. Have a leisurely stroll, cycle through or sit and eat a picnic surrounded by nature.

Fishing falls in the middle of the soft and hard categories. You do need specialist equipment, but with most types of fishing there is little to no risk to life involved. But you need to be in nature – by or even on a lake or river – to do it, so it definitely counts as a form of nature tourism. People have obviously been fishing for years as a source of food gathering, but it is also a recreational hobby enjoyed by many.

This is another middle of the road activity. Kayaking can be dangerous, although it usually isn’t – you’ll often have a guide with you, and of course specialist equipment (the kayak) is required. It’s a really fun activity that many people enjoy!

You can visit a beach and simply do… nothing! This is still an example of nature tourism, as beaches are natural environments. Bali has some of the most beautiful beaches in the world, and tourists flock there to relax and soak up the sunshine. Beaches are also usually near to bars and restaurants, and you might find people doing beach yoga or watching the sunrise/sunset. Thailand even has all-night moonlight beach parties. They are versatile and beautiful locations!

Again, another activity that could be considered hard or soft. It depends where you go, really. A gentle bike ride along a specific cycle lane through a park is nothing like mountain biking in harsh terrains. It’s all about the level of ability you have and what risks you’re willing to take. But cycling is definitely a great way to get out and about in nature. It is also a low-cost and eco-friendly activity, which makes it a winner from many angles.

These tend to be a longer duration than many activities mentioned above, which you may do regularly but for a few hours at a time. Nature tours are days or even weeks-long trips, out into the wilderness with nature and wildlife experts. You might travel by air or train, or go on a cruise, and your guide will be on hand to point out every aspect of nature there is to see. These nature tours will take visitors to some of the most beautiful destinations on earth, such as trekking in Chiang Mai , Croatia, seeing the glaciers in Iceland and Alaska, and gazing at the best waterfalls in Finger Lakes . They’ll set you back a fair bit, but the memories you’ll make seeing bears and waterfalls and glorious sunsets will more than make up for it!

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Wildlife Holidays in the United Kingdom

From the rolling heaths and woodlands of the New Forest National Park to the extensive wetlands that line the north Norfolk coastline, the varied habitats and landscapes of the British Isles are home to a wealth of exciting wildlife. It is definitely not essential to go abroad when wildlife holidays in Britain offer such diversity!

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Naturetrek offers a wide range of natural history and wildlife holidays in the UK (over 100 tours in fact!). From the Scilly Isles to the Outer Hebrides and everywhere in-between. Whether you are looking for a day trip, a weekend break, a week-long tour or a cruise we have a holiday for you. All small group tours led by expert naturalists. We’re always expanding our range of UK wildlife holiday so keep an eye on our growing catalogue!

The holidays and short breaks outlined below are just a selection and offer the opportunity to enjoy some of the UK's very best wildlife, covering birds, mammals, reptiles & amphibians, butterflies and wild flowers. They also provide an excellent opportunity to learn about Naturetrek's range of wildlife holidays, UK-based and worldwide, and meet a few of our expert local tour leaders.

Here is a selection of our wildlife holidays in the UK:

• Bird watching breaks in  Norfolk , the Isles of Scilly and the Forest of Dean .
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• A holiday to Dorset in search of Britain's Reptiles and Amphibians .
• Day trips exploring the marine life of Lyme Bay and longer cruises all the way to St Kilda !
• Photography tours such as Northumberland - Seabirds & Castles (Wildlife Photography) .
• A wide range of holidays to Scotland  including The Magic of Mull  and Scotland's Mammals & Highlights of the Highlands .
• Wildlife holidays to the tranquil British Channel Islands , including Alderney , Guernsey ,  Herm ,  Jersey , and Sark .

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New research shows a global trend in nature-based tourism

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A new study out today found that many nations throughout the world, including the United Kingdom, are seeing an annual increase in visitors to their conservation areas.

Nature-based tourism is one of the most tangible benefits that people derive from conserving biodiversity. Professor Andrew Balmford

The research, published today in the journal PLoS Biology , found that in 15 of the 20 countries for which information was available there was an increase in the number of visitors to their nature reserves. This has important implications for nations who are reliant on nature-related tourism to generate funds for conservation, as well as for engaging the public about the importance of conserving biodiversity.

Professor Andrew Balmford, Professor of Conservation Science at the University of Cambridge and lead author of the study, said: "Nature-based tourism is one of the most tangible benefits that people derive from conserving biodiversity. Unfortunately it is often remarkably poorly quantified. When a study based on visit rates to American and Japanese nature reserves last year showed these were declining, it prompted widespread concerns that the public was falling out of love with nature. However, this report refutes this contention."

For the study, the researchers compiled and then analysed a database with far broader geographical coverage than previous ones. Their findings show that since the 1990s, while visitor numbers have been falling slightly in the US and Japan, these results are exceptional: in three-quarters of the 20 countries analysed, visitation to nature reserves is increasing - in some countries by as much as 7 or 8 per cent per year. In Africa, Europe, Asia and Latin America the increases were on average positive and the United Kingdom saw an average 3 per cent annual increase.

It is believed that the previous results for the US and Japan arose because the growth in nature-based tourism is linked with wealth, with visit rates increasing fastest in the poorest countries (such as Ghana, Madagascar and India), and growing more slowly in richer ones, eventually falling below zero in the richest nations.

Professor Balmford explains: "We don't yet have the data to understand why this link with wealth arises. It could be because affluence leads to a rise in sedentary alternatives to nature-based pastimes, such as TV or the Internet, but other explanations - such as a shift from increasingly overcrowded reserves to quieter nature areas nearby where visitors are not counted, or even to overseas reserves - are equally plausible."

Professor Balmford concludes: "The trends demonstrated in the paper underscore the point that nature-based tourism generally remains extremely popular and is in most places still growing quickly.

"There are many places where large-scale nature tourism is not feasible, and there are important concerns to be addressed about the potential negative impacts of tourism on local people and on the environment. But despite these caveats, we believe nature-based tourism continues to offer an important route to linking conservation with sustainable development."

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Nature-Based Economies

By putting nature at the heart of a green recovery, we can drive locally-led economic regeneration in a way that is good for nature, climate and people.

What’s the issue?

One of the greatest challenges of the 21 st century is to sustain human wellbeing without destroying our natural environment. We need to create prosperity today without compromising the prosperity of future generations. For powerful social and environmental reasons, we need to catalyse a transition from extractive to regenerative economies. Rewilding Britain believes that we can do so by putting nature at the heart of a green economic recovery.

Although a lot of talk and effort has been focused on using clean energy and manufacturing to bring jobs to our industrial heartlands in pursuit of a green recovery, rural and coastal communities are in danger of being left out. By nurturing place-based jobs and promoting small and medium enterprises built on regenerative principles, we can ensure that these communities benefit from wider green investment.

Read our report on rewilding and the rural economy

“More than ever before we must combine human ingenuity with the genius of nature”

What’s Rewilding Britain’s solution?

We believe that a new and thriving ecosystem of employment can be built around the restoration and rewilding of nature. We propose the creation of localised Nature-Based Economies across 30 % of Britain by 2030 . We would like to see each Nature-Based Economy supporting a diversified, resilient and just economic transition alongside the large-scale restoration and rewilding of nature. 

Nature-Based Economies should incorporate:

• Core rewilding areas (at least 5 % of Britain) which focus on restoring and reinstating as wide a range of natural processes , habitats and missing species as possible to form mosaics of native forest, peatlands, heaths, species-rich grasslands, wetlands, saltmarshes, kelp beds, seagrass and living reefs. There should be minimal or no human impact or extraction of resources.
• Regenerative areas (at least 25 % of Britain) which support a diverse range of land and marine uses and enterprises, generating value for the local economy while allowing nature to flourish, e.g. continuous cover forestry, nature-based tourism, recreational fishing, regenerative aquaculture and high-nature value/​wild meats.

What does a Nature-Based Economy look like?

Our new report paints a picture, quite literally, of how a nature-based economy in the year 2030 would differ from today. Nature is rebounding in this imagined landscape: there are more saplings and scrub regenerating on the hills, the rivers are cleaner and less prone to flooding thanks to beaver reintroductions, and the peat bogs have become net carbon sinks again after being restored.

But, crucially, there are also people in this wilder landscape. People who are working on the land and sea, whether they’re restoring naturally-flowing rivers, mixing stock management with wildlife guiding, running community engagement activities, carrying out monitoring and research, leading recreational fishing trips, or learning from the Norwegian model to pioneer wild field sports. And more people are visiting the area to see the resurgent wildlife, visit eco-tourism projects, and spend their money in local cafes, pubs and shops. Rewilding and ​ ‘ re-peopling’ can and must go hand in hand. 

In this illustrative example, the primary source of employment historically in this area was textiles, which grew at the time of the thriving wool industry. Since the mid-20th century, the industry has been in decline along with the original mills and factory buildings. The economy is now largely reliant on farming and forestry alongside employment in the public and service sectors.

Investments 1. Limited inward investment 2. Reliance on public subsidies 3. Local spend rarely stays in local area Ecological returns 4. Small nature reserves 5. Flood damage to local town 6. Net positive carbon emissions Social returns 7. Shops and community spaces have closed 8. Poor transport connections and infrastructure 9. Young people leave to find work Economic returns 10. Lack of diverse local employment 11. Farming incomes in decline 12. Large-scale forestry operations

A series of interventions has transformed the region. Communities and businesses have come together to develop new land and marine use plans. These include the restoration and rewilding of a mosaic of habitats. Nature-based investment and enterprise funding has revitalised local businesses and nurtured innovative business models. Improved public transport better connects the region with a city less than two hours away.

Investments 1. Rewilding and restoration activities 2. Nature-based financing and enterprise 3. Training and education Ecological returns 4. Mosaic of flourishing habitats 5. Restored river and wetlands ‘slow the flow’ 6. Higher carbon capture and storage Social returns 7. Local engagement in decision-making 8. Better connected transport and infrastructure 9. Community cohesion and sense of place Economic returns 10. Thriving range of nature-based businesses 11. Increased local employment and revenue 12. Diverse and integrated local supply chains

increase in jobs over 10  years across 33 projects

Rewilding boosts and diversifies jobs

It’s a common misconception that rewilding means fewer job opportunities. After all, letting natural processes take the lead implies that fewer people will be needed to work the land.

Our analysis of rewilding sites across England in 2021 shows that’s not the case. In fact, rewilding has led to an increase in the number and diversity of jobs over 10  years. 

We carried out a detailed analysis of 33 of the projects within the Rewilding Network , covering an area of 53 , 175 ha, of which 33 , 327 ha have been assessed as rewilding. 

Over a period of 10  years rewilding led to a  54 % increase in jobs and a thirteenfold increase in volunteering positions. Read more about the study in our Nature-Based Economy report.

Nature-Based Economy downloads

• Report: Rewilding and the rural economy
• Infographics: Present day and 2030 perspectives

Rewilding 101

Start here to learn all about rewilding, what it looks like and what it can do.

We have big ambitions. Find out what we’ve set out to achieve through rewilding.

Rewild your inbox

Wise up with the latest rewilding news, tips and events in our newsletter.

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Why we need rewilding.

Seven ways rewilding is helping people, climate and nature to thrive.

Meet the rewilders: Wild Ken Hill

Inspired by the achievements of Knepp in Sussex, Dominic Buscall abandoned a career in consultancy to lead a transformation of his family’s Norfolk farm.

Case study: COAST

A world-renowned example of a local community restoring its marine environment while also supporting local jobs and businesses.

Help Scotland become a Rewilding Nation

Support Scotland in becoming the world’s first Rewilding Nation, committing to nature recovery across 30 % of land and seas.

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Nature-Based Tourism

Cite this chapter.

• Caroline Kuenzi 4 &
• Jeff McNeely 5  

Part of the book series: International Risk Governance Council Bookseries ((IRGC,volume 1))

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Tourism is the largest industry in the world according to figures on employment and expenditures. Over 800 million people, the equivalent of roughly 12% of the world's population, travel internationally each year — with many more travelling within their countries of residence. Airlines, the hotel and restaurant business, and outdoor equipment manufacturers and vendors are among the supplier industries that are highly dependent on a successful tourism sector. Tourism furthermore relies on and provides income to national infrastructures such as airports, rail systems, road networks, electric power systems, agricultural production, and water supply systems. On a more personal dimension, travelling provides individuals with the opportunity to escape temporarily from the humdrum of every-day life, to experience the novel or unknown and, possibly, to make a long-time ‘dream come true’. ‘Discovering the world’ arguably figures amongst the top life goals for many people in developed countries. Consequently, the tourism sector as a whole seems to be fairly resilient to disruptions from economic downturns, political crises, extreme weather events, or even natural disasters (UNWTO press release of 24 January 2006).

The fastest growing element of tourism is ‘nature-based’ tourism, often involving excursions to national parks and wilderness areas, to developing countries where a large portion of the world's biodiversity is concentrated (Olson et al. 2001: 936; WWF 2001; Christ et al. 2003: 5). It may also include an ‘adventure tourism’ element that may carry physical risks. More and more people are living an urban life and the amenities and conveniences that come with globalisation increasingly lead to a near complete disconnect from nature: the living creatures behind the neat slices of fish and meat that we consume or behind the clothes that keep us warm are no longer visible to us; the seasonality of fruit and vegetables virtually has ceased to exist; and the furniture in our homes is impossible to picture as the trees from which it came. Yet at the same time we may have more intimate insight into the mystery of a giant sequoia, the hibernating habits of a grizzly bear or the hatching behaviour of a hummingbird than our rural ancestors could ever hope to have had - insights that are brought to us in breathtaking close-up pictures via the many media channels that cater daily to our information needs. For many people, ‘getting back in touch with nature’ thus provides the ultimately different holiday experience. Indeed, from snow-covered mountains to earth-coloured savannas teeming with exotic wildlife, lush rain forests, vast desert landscapes and pristine coastal strips offering spectacular bird and marine life, the opportunities for immersing oneself in nature seem countless.

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Kuenzi, C., McNeely, J. (2008). Nature-Based Tourism. In: Renn, O., Walker, K.D. (eds) Global Risk Governance. International Risk Governance Council Bookseries, vol 1. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6799-0_8

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10 good news stories for UK travel and tourism in 2021

From cleaner rivers to greener cities and community projects, there are signs the industry will come out of lockdown travelling in the right direction

A mid all the challenges, last year’s forced pause sent some hopeful ripples across the travel industry. Talk of renewed purpose, going slow and regenerative travel – the kind that does good, rather than merely less harm – spread among tour operators and across destinations. Although travel has ground to a halt once more, with Britons currently banned from entering many countries - and even other counties - these ripples will help us to travel better once we can.

Visit Scotland declares a climate emergency

In 2020, Visit Scotland became the world’s first national tourist board to “declare a climate emergency” by signing up to the Tourism Declares initiative. The declaration means that Visit Scotland will prioritise the reduction of carbon emissions in everything it does and promotes. Chris Greenwood, senior tourism insights manager at Visit Scotland, says: “The declaration sends a message that environmental responsibility is essential and that everyone can get involved.” Some of the plans under way include helping tourism businesses to reduce food and supplier miles, forming a partnership with Zero Waste Scotland, and increasing public transport use, even in remote locations. visitscotland.org

England Coast Path nears completion

The creation of the world’s longest signposted footpath , stretching 2,795 miles around the English coast, has been more than 10 years in the making. Despite the coronavirus pandemic, and budget cuts for Natural England, the feat is progressing. Launches in 2021 include opening up larger parts of the Cumbrian coast from Whitehaven to Silverdale, featuring a 40-mile section near Millom widened for activities such as mountain biking. Other newly approved sections include completing Essex’s coast path where it skirts several estuaries, access between South Hayling and East Head on the south coast, and the storied trail between Amble and Bamburgh in Northumberland. nationaltrail.co.uk

Rye Harbour’s new discovery centre

The sheer expanse of Rye Harbour’s coastline – dotted with faded military outposts and Henry VIII’s crumbling Camber Castle – can make it seem desolate, but in fact, this 465-hectare nature reserve is among the most biodiverse places in Britain. Shingle, saltmarsh, saline lagoons, marshes and reedbeds create habitats for more than 4,000 species, 300 of which are rare or endangered. To celebrate the reserve, the Wildlife Trust is opening a visitor centre at Rye Harbour in April. The low-lying building will have sustainably sourced sweet chestnut cladding to blend into the landscape and offer accessibility for all visitors. It will also have a cafe to increase its year-round appeal. ryeharbourdiscoverycentre.org.uk

Wild on the Isle of Wight

The Isle of Wight’s coast and ancient woodlands are home to species rarely seen elsewhere in the UK. Glanville Fritillary butterflies, hazel dormice and red squirrels thrive, and a successful reintroduction in 2020 means 11 white-tailed sea eagles now soar overhead. Having earned biosphere reserve status in 2019 , in 2020 the Wildlife Trust launched a Wilder 2030 vision for the island. By acquiring more sites for wildlife restoration, the Trust hopes to make nature recovery work for local people. The plan started in 2020 with the purchase of a run-down 40-hectare farm, Little Duxmore. Once restored, the site’s wetlands and downland will become a haven for wildlife and welcome visitors and volunteers. hiwwt.org.uk

Trees for Life to build UK’s first rewilding centre

Having been working to restore Scotland’s over-grazed Caledonian forest since 1989, it’s apt that charity Trees for Life’s Dundreggan Estate, in Inverness, should house the UK’s first rewilding visitor centre. The centre hopes to demonstrate to up to 50,000 visitors a year that the Great Caledonian forest is vital for wildlife and sequestering carbon, helping community resilience, reducing flooding risk and improving soil quality. It will also highlight native species, such as pine martens and golden eagles, and explore Gaelic culture. Construction will begin in 2021. treesforlife.org.uk

New tour operators embrace slow travel on home turf

Once tourism is possible again, flight-free adventures in (and near) the UK should be easier to arrange with some new tour operators. Byway hopes to champion lesser-known destinations by slow means. Founder Cat Jones’ favourite itineraries include a solo rail and ferry adventure around western Scotland, including stays in Corrour, the UK’s most remote railway station, and on the eco-minded island of Eigg . Wilderness Scotland has branched out to offer self-guided walking, driving and cycling tours across the border, working with Wilderness England. The more adventurous may be interested in Natural Britain , which promises to provide a carbon label for each trip and hopes to raise the bar when it comes to adrenaline-packed adventures close to home.

Plunge in to Penzance’s geothermal heated pool

Penzance’s art-deco seawater lido opened the UK’s first geothermally heated pool in September 2020. The steaming slice of the triangular pool is heated via pumps from a geothermal well under the seabed. The system has a minimal carbon footprint and will showcase the potential for further geothermal energy use in the UK. It’s run by the community for the community, with a chunk of the funding coming from 970 local people. jubileepool.co.uk

UK’s first river to achieve bathing-water status

Rivers gained renewed attention in 2020 when the Environment Agency revealed that only 14% of the UK’s waterways had a “good” ecological standard and none had a “good” chemical standard . One local group took matters into its own hands: the Ilkley Clean River Campaign on West Yorkshire’s River Wharfe. Thanks to its campaign a popular wild swimming spot on a shingle-bed meander between the town’s main bridge and Beanlands Island became the country’s first designated river bathing area . The status means that the Environment Agency will test and declare the water’s chemical state at regular intervals throughout 2021, hopefully setting a precedent for other popular dipping spots. Ilkley Clean River Campaign on Facebook

Cardiff named UK’s most bike-friendly city

Quieter lockdown roads, the need to reduce congestion on public transport, and increasingly urgent carbon targets created a tailwind for the UK’s cycling revolution in 2020. Cycle-to-work scheme orders increased by 200% , and Halfords’ share price jumped 23%. The UK government pledged £2bn of investment to double journeys taken by bicycle by 2025, agreed to subsidise electric bikes, and more than 100 bike lanes popped up in British cities as a result of Covid social-distancing measures. A 2020 survey by cycling route-finding app Komoot declared Cardiff the UK’s most bike-friendly city . The city is loved by cyclists for its sizable bike-sharing network, NextBike , five cycle superhighways, and the Cardiff Bay Trail – a six-mile circular route with historic and cultural markers along the way.

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A United Vision for Nature - 'Nature Positive' Report Marks New Collaborative Era in Travel & Tourism

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• 22 Apr 2024

WTTC, UN Tourism and the Sustainable Hospitality Alliance join forces to support Nature Positive Tourism

The leading players of Travel & Tourism globally have published a landmark joint report setting out their joint plan to help halt and reverse biodiversity loss.

Launched on Earth Day 2024, "Nature Positive Travel & Tourism in Action" is the creation of the high-level 'Nature Positive Tourism Partnership, made up of the World Travel & Tourism Council ( WTTC ), the World Tourism Organization ( UN Tourism ) and the Sustainable Hospitality Alliance ( the Alliance ).

For years, UN Tourism has been at the forefront of integrating tourism into the broader UN biodiversity agenda, including supporting the work of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

Developed in collaboration with specialist consultancy ANIMONDIAL, the report is the sector's pledge to support the implementation of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), the UN's Biodiversity Plan.

It presents more than 30 case studies of inspiring and progressive actions from around the world involving large and small businesses, national and local government agencies, civil society groups, and inter-sectoral partnerships.

By offering actionable guidance and insights, this report not only highlights the intrinsic link between biodiversity and tourism's resilience, but also empowers businesses to become stewards of nature.

Historic partnership for nature

Ms. Julia Simpson, WTTC President & CEO , said: "This historic partnership with Travel & Tourism heavyweights is a significant step in our collective journey towards a more sustainable and responsible sector. This report is not merely a publication but a movement towards integrating environmental stewardship into the core of travel experiences. As we celebrate Earth Day, let us heed the call to nurture and protect our destinations. Our sector's reliance on nature, coupled with our expertise in creating inspiring and memorable experiences, means we are ideally placed to be guardians of nature."

Mr. Zurab Pololikashvili, Secretary-General of UN Tourism , said: "For years, UN Tourism has been at the forefront of integrating tourism into the broader UN biodiversity agenda, including supporting the work of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This pivotal new collaboration among key global players sets a robust framework for sustainable practices that not only drive significant impact but also exemplify the power of united efforts in conserving biodiversity. This report is a testimony to what we can achieve together for nature's preservation, inspiring a global movement towards more sustainable and resilient tourism."

Mr. Glenn Mandziuk, Sustainable Hotel Alliance CEO , said: "This report is a milestone for Travel and Tourism, representing our commitment as an industry to protect and conserve nature. The Alliance is proud to contribute to and collaborate on this insightful and action-orientated report which will bring tangible change to destinations around the world, supporting biodiversity.  Nature underpins our society, economies and indeed our very existence. The hospitality industry is today a leader amongst industries in its Nature Positive approach and this report signifies how much our industry understands the true value of nature."  

Expert-led coalition

Recognising that the sector has a critical role to play in protecting and conserving biodiversity, the Nature Positive Tourism approach is designed to be a touchstone for actionable change. It focuses on equipping the sector with the tools and insights needed to nurture and protect destinations upon which it depends.

The commitment of the Partnership to work towards "net positive for nature" draws on extensive consultation with experts from business, government, academia and civil society, including the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA).

The report, which follows the 2022 WTTC report "Nature Positive Travel & Tourism", includes practical frameworks and real-world examples that encourage both travel providers and travellers to embark on journeys that contribute to the conservation of our natural treasures.

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

A Global Perspective on Trends in Nature-Based Tourism

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Affiliation Conservation Science Program, World Wildlife Fund–US, Washington, DC, United States of America

Current address: United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Affiliation Fauna and Flora International, Cambridge, United Kingdom

• Andrew Balmford, 
• James Beresford, 
• Jonathan Green, 
• Robin Naidoo, 
• Matt Walpole, 
• Andrea Manica

• Published: June 30, 2009
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000144
• Reader Comments

Reports of rapid growth in nature-based tourism and recreation add significant weight to the economic case for biodiversity conservation but seem to contradict widely voiced concerns that people are becoming increasingly isolated from nature. This apparent paradox has been highlighted by a recent study showing that on a per capita basis, visits to natural areas in the United States and Japan have declined over the last two decades. These results have been cited as evidence of “a fundamental and pervasive shift away from nature-based recreation”—but how widespread is this phenomenon? We address this question by looking at temporal trends in visitor numbers at 280 protected areas (PAs) from 20 countries. This more geographically representative dataset shows that while PA visitation (whether measured as total or per capita visit numbers) is indeed declining in the United States and Japan, it is generally increasing elsewhere. Total visit numbers are growing in 15 of the 20 countries for which we could get data, with the median national rate of change unrelated to the national rate of population growth but negatively associated with wealth. Reasons for this reversal of growth in the richest countries are difficult to pin down with existing data, but the pattern is mirrored by trends in international tourist arrivals as a whole and so may not necessarily be caused by disaffection with nature. Irrespective of the explanation, it is clear that despite important downturns in some countries, nature-related tourism is far from declining everywhere, and may still have considerable potential both to generate funds for conservation and to shape people's attitudes to the environment.

Author Summary

Nature-based tourism is frequently described as one of the fastest growing sectors of the world's largest industry, and a very important justification for conservation. However, a recent, high profile report has interpreted declining visit rates to US and Japanese national parks as evidence of a pervasive shift away from nature tourism. Here we use the largest database so far compiled on trends in visits to Protected Areas around the world to resolve this apparent paradox. We find that, while visit rates—measured in two different ways—are indeed declining in some wealthy countries, in roughly three-quarters of the nations where data are available, visits to Protected Areas are increasing. Internationally, rates of growth in the number of visits to such areas show a clear negative association with per capita income, which interestingly is matched by trends in foreign arrivals as a whole. Our results therefore suggest that, despite worrying local downturns, nature-related tourism is far from declining everywhere, and may still have considerable potential to generate funds for conservation and engage people with the environment.

Citation: Balmford A, Beresford J, Green J, Naidoo R, Walpole M, Manica A (2009) A Global Perspective on Trends in Nature-Based Tourism. PLoS Biol 7(6): e1000144. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000144

Academic Editor: Walt V. Reid, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, United States of America

Received: February 9, 2009; Accepted: May 20, 2009; Published: June 30, 2009

Copyright: © 2009 Balmford et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: This work was supported by a grant from the Natural Capital Project, through The Nature Conservancy. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Abbreviations: GDP, gross domestic product; PA, protected area; PPP, purchasing power parity

Introduction

Across southern Africa, nature-based tourism reportedly now generates roughly the same revenue as farming, forestry, and fisheries combined [1] . Worldwide, tourism as a whole has been estimated to account for roughly 10% of gross domestic product (GDP) [2] , with wildlife viewing and outdoor recreation (much of it centred on protected areas [PAs]) reportedly making up one of its fastest growing sectors [3] – [5] . Though statistics like these are rarely supported by detailed data, they underpin widespread recognition that nature-based tourism is an important ecosystem service [6] , capable of generating substantial resources for both conservation and local economic development [3] , [7] , [8] . This is particularly significant given that PAs are under increasing pressure to provide economic justification for their existence [9] – [12] .

This positive perspective stands in sharp contrast to growing concerns about an emerging disconnect between people and their natural environments. Increasing urbanisation and the rise of sedentary, indoor pastimes (such as television, the Internet, and video games) have been linked to a reduction in informal, outdoor recreation (Pyle's “Extinction of Experience” [13] ), with potentially serious consequences for childhood development, mental and physical wellbeing, and environmental knowledge and concern [14] – [21] . Many see this as a major challenge for biodiversity conservation [13] , [14] , [21] , [22] : if people no longer experience and know their natural environments, how can they be expected to care about them?

These worries have been further fuelled by a recent and widely publicised paper examining trends in 16 measures of outdoor recreation (14 from the United States, plus one each from Japan and Spain [23] ). This analysis showed that, expressed per head of population, visits to natural areas in the United States and Japan (as well as participation in duck-hunting and fishing in the United States, but not hiking, camping, or other hunting) have declined since the late 1980s (though for contrasting US figures, see [24] ). From these per capita trends the authors conclude there has been “…a fundamental and pervasive shift away from nature-based recreation” [23; see also 21,25]. However, the paper produced no evidence of declines outside the United States and Japan (and per capita national park attendance in Spain, the only other country sampled, has not declined), raising the possibility that the reported shift may not be universal.

To date, lack of data has meant no study has looked at trends in nature-based tourism across more than a handful of countries. Here, we use newly compiled information on visitor numbers to 280 PAs in 20 countries (Australia, Canada, Chile, China, Ecuador, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Madagascar, Peru, Philippines, Rwanda, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Uganda, UK, United States) between 1992 and 2006 to explore the generality of the United States and Japan results and to understand the apparent mismatch with the claim that globally, nature-based tourism is on the rise. Importantly, because we are interested in trends in nature tourism as a whole as well as individual interest in nature, we analyse changes in both total visit numbers and visit numbers corrected for national population size. The latter are a better reflection of per capita interest in a country's PAs [23] , but the former are a more sensible proxy for trends in the overall benefit derived from nature tourism as an ecosystem service.

Our analysis of standardised rates of change in PA visit numbers provides limited support for the previously reported declines in nature-based activities in the United States. Using total visit numbers, only 14 out of 51 US PAs for which we could get data showed significant decreases in visit number (at p <0.05), while 11 exhibited significant increases. Adjusting for changes in national population size, the number of US PAs experiencing significant declines rose to 27 and the number with increasing attendance fell to just 6. Clearly, the decline in per capita visitation to US PAs we could sample is real, but arises largely because absolute attendance has been almost static despite a growing national population. In Japan, the only PA for which we had data showed a nonsignificant decline in visits, whether expressed in terms of total or per capita visit numbers.

More interestingly, these weak declines in two countries are far from globally typical: instead, visitor trends show marked geographical variation. When we pooled standardised rates of change within continents, rather than being negative we found that trends in total visit numbers were not significantly different from zero in North America or Australasia, and were on average positive in Africa, Europe, Asia, and Latin America ( Figure 1A ; F 5,274  = 10.2, p <0.001; in post hoc tests only Australasia and North America had rates of changes not significantly different from zero at p <0.05). There was similar broad-scale variation when we compared trends in per capita visit numbers across continents ( Figure 1B : F 5,274  = 10.4, p <0.001, with significant positive trends again everywhere apart from Australasia and North America).

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

(A) Changes in total visit number; (B) changes in per capita visit number.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000144.g001

These patterns of spatial heterogeneity were confirmed when data were analysed by country ( Table S1 ). Total visit numbers to PAs on average grew in 15 out of the 20 countries sampled and fell in four (with Uganda showing no change). Even allowing for population growth, per capita visit numbers rose in 14 countries (with Uganda and Australia added to the list of countries showing falling visitation). The only country we sampled outside the Organisation for Economic and Co-Operation Development (OECD) with consistently falling PA visitation was Indonesia.

National rates of change are closely associated with wealth. In contrast to the United States and Japan, poorer countries typically had increasing numbers of PA visits, with median standardised rates of growth in total visit numbers showing a clear negative relationship with per capita GDP ( Figure 2A ; regression weighted by number of PAs sampled per country: adjusted r 2  = 0.52, n  = 20 countries, F 1,18  = 21.8, p <0.001). This result was not due to correlated variation in population growth, because the negative link with rising wealth held when visit numbers were adjusted for changes in population size ( Figure 2B ; weighted regression of median standardised rates of change in per capita visit numbers against per capita GDP: adjusted r 2  = 0.43, n  = 20, F 1,18  = 15.5, P <0.001). As a further check for any confounding effects of population growth, we compared changes in total visit numbers with national population growth rates, but found no association between the two ( Figure S1 ; weighted regression: adjusted r 2  = 0.07, n  = 20, F 1,18  = 2.6, NS). The tendency for PA visitation to be increasing in poorer countries appears to be independent of population growth.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000144.g002

Our dataset on PA visits has far broader geographical coverage than any others we are aware of, yet yielded no evidence to support the idea of a consistent global decline in nature-based recreation. Instead it appears that falling visitation is mostly restricted to a few well-off countries. When we adjusted visit numbers for population growth to examine individual participation in nature recreation we were able to replicate previously reported declines in per capita visit number in the United States and Japan [23] , but also found that in most other countries population-adjusted visit numbers have been increasing.

These patterns were more marked when we looked at trends in PA visitation as a whole, using total numbers of PA visits. We found these are growing on four out of six continents and in 15 of the 20 countries for which we could get data. These changes in average visit rates are quite well predicted by wealth, but are unrelated to national population growth—confirming the finding from the per capita analysis that it is not the case that visitation is increasing simply where populations are growing rapidly. Instead, it appears that PA visitation is generally growing, but at a progressively lower rate (eventually falling below zero) with rising affluence.

We do not have a ready explanation for this negative link between visit growth and wealth, and believe this will be hard to unravel from correlational analyses alone. It could be related to the emergence of “videophilia” [20] , or to other aspects of growing urbanisation or increasingly sedentary lifestyles [14] – [19] , [21] . These ideas are plausible, but direct evidence for them is sparse. Given that very many potential drivers co-vary with one another and with time, causality may be difficult to establish until more detailed data become available, or an experimental approach is adopted.

One nonexclusive alternative explanation for the patterns of changing PA visitation that we see could be that many formal protected areas in richer countries are becoming increasingly crowded and thus less attractive to nature enthusiasts (J. du Toit, personal correspondence). Overcrowding and the perception of overcrowding have been noted as a concern of visitors to many larger US National Parks for over a decade [26] , [27] . If would-be visitors are instead switching to less publicised sites where visitors are not counted, overall visit rates to natural areas in these countries could be stable or even growing, yet still recorded as declining.

One other explanation for the pattern we see could be that there is a shift in preference away from domestic destinations as nature-focused tourists become wealthier and alternative wildlife attractions in less costly developing countries become more accessible [28] , [29] . Strikingly, the patterns we uncovered for PA visitor trends are echoed by those for international tourism more generally: standardised national rates of change in all foreign arrivals (from [30] ) co-vary positively with median changes in total and per capita PA visit numbers (for total visit numbers, Figure 3A ; regression weighted as in Fig. 2A , r 2  = 0.34, n  = 19 countries excluding Rwanda, for which no arrival information was available: F 1,17  = 10.2, p <0.01; for per capita visit numbers, Figure 3B ; weighted regression: r 2  = 0.25, n  = 19, F 1,17  = 7.0, p <0.05). Changes in foreign arrivals also show a negative relationship with per capita GDP ( Figure S2 ; r 2  = 0.29, n  = 19, F 1,17  = 8.2, p  = 0.01), falling to zero growth in the United States. These results suggest that trends in nature-based recreation might be less driven by attitudes to nature per se and more to do with how rising wealth and the emergence of new destinations influence the dynamics of recreation as a whole [31] , [32] . To resolve this, more data would be needed than we were able to obtain on the nationalities and motivations of visitors to individual PAs.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000144.g003

Regardless of the underlying drivers, our analyses indicate that it is premature to conclude that PA visit data indicate a general and pervasive shift away from nature tourism. This is apparently occurring in a few developed countries, where it is worrying, and where it certainly demands more attention. But in contrast, in most developing countries visits to protected areas are growing at rates that mirror general increases in tourism and travel—in many cases by more than 4%/y ( Figure 2A ). This is especially significant for conservation, given that, unlike other nonconsumptive uses of ecosystems, nature-based tourism produces tangible financial flows that can, if carefully developed, be of direct benefit to local decision-makers [7] – [9] , [33] , [34] .

Tourism can often provide a strong incentive for protection in biodiversity-rich areas [8] , and formal designation of such sites can raise their profile and influence tourism visitation [35] . However, increasing visitor numbers alone is no guarantee that tourism revenues will be reinvested in conservation [36] . Equally, recording visitor numbers does not equate with the much less common practices of monitoring or managing tourism impacts [37] . International nature tourism raises other important worries—about CO 2 emissions, about its vulnerability to changing fashions, about disturbance to wildlife and nearby people, and about how far its revenues filter down to local communities [24] , [34] , [38] – [41] . Nature-based tourism is only likely to be sustainable under certain conditions of effective planning, management, and local participation [7] , [42] – [44] . However, to the extent that these concerns can be addressed, our results argue that far from having a diminishing role, nature-based recreation has the potential in many parts of the world to make a growing contribution to both conservation and sustainable development.

Materials and Methods

Somewhat surprisingly, there is no global database or consistent set of national statistics summarising trends in nature-based tourism. Instead, like previous authors [23] we infer changes in the sector as a whole from visits to PAs. We compiled information on annual visitor numbers to terrestrial PAs (including any listed in [45] ). PA visits are among the most frequent forms of nature-based recreation recorded in the United States [23] , and we suggest they are likely to account for an even greater proportion of nature recreation in other countries, where alternatives are less developed. We collected data from as many sources as possible: the grey and published literature, personal contacts, and especially the World Wide Web. The methods used to record visitors were rarely reported in detail, but varied widely, including dedicated studies, gate receipts, and traffic counts [46] . There are also likely to be biases in some datasets, with corruption, for example, perhaps leading to systematic under- (and in some cases, maybe over-) reporting of visitor numbers [47] . These problems may confound estimation of absolute visitor numbers, but will have less impact on within-PA changes in visitor numbers over time, and so here we used all available information.

In total we were able to collate ≥6 y of data (between 1992 and 2006) for 280 PAs from 20 countries. We then expressed visitation trends at each PA in two ways—using total visit number, as a measure of the overall tourism benefit provided by the PA; and (as in [23] ) using visit number divided by national population size in that year (from [30] ), as a measure of per capita use of the PA. For PAs with large numbers of nondomestic visitors, tracking per capita use by dividing by national population size is imperfect (and data on visitor origins are too patchy for any more sophisticated adjustment by population size). However, data we obtained for 190 PAs (many lacking time series information and so excluded from our core analysis) indicate that, for all except one continent, a mean of >70% of visitors are nationals, so that errors caused through adjusting by national population size are relatively limited. The exception is Africa, where on average only ∼30% visitors are nationals. For this continent, adjustment by national population growth (which is also generally higher than elsewhere) is probably excessive and so negatively biases estimates of trends in per capita visit rates.

For each PA we next performed linear regressions of total visit number and per capita visit number on year, and derived standardised measures of rates of change (ranging from +1 to −1) as (slope/maximum total [or per capita] visit number predicted by the regression during the 15-y range). We explored geographical variation in trends in our two measures of visit numbers by calculating median standardised rates of change across continents, and across countries ( Table S1 ). We compared the latter with per capita GDP adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP) (for 2005, from [30] ), using linear regression weighted by the number of PAs sampled in each country. As an additional check to see whether our results for total visit number were confounded by changes in national population size, we performed an equivalent weighted regression of national median change in total visit number versus annual population growth (for 1990–2006, from [30] ). Last, to see whether our findings were specific to nature-related tourism, we also obtained data on trends in all foreign arrivals between 1995 and 2005 (again from [30] ), and compared standardised national rates of change (calculated in the same way as for PA visits) with per capita GDP and with median standardised rates of change in total visit numbers.

Supporting Information

Median national rates of change in total numbers of PA visits in relation to annual population growth (1990–2006); the number of PAs sampled per country is reflected in point size.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000144.s001

(0.53 MB EPS)

Standardised annual change in foreign arrivals (1995–2005) in relation to per capita GDP (in 2005), adjusted for PPP; solid line represents the best model, dashed lines represent ±1 standard error (SE).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000144.s002

(0.58 MB EPS)

National values of annual rates of change in total and per capita visits to PAs, per capita GDP, number of PAs sampled, and annual rates of change in foreign arrivals.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000144.s003

(0.05 MB DOC)

Acknowledgments

We are very grateful to Abishek Behl, Graham Burton, Janet Cochrane, Ian Craigie, Phil Dearden, Dubiure Umaru Farouk, Richard Jenkins, Afan Jones, Chris Kirkby, N. Aldrin D. Mallari, Heather McNiff, Julia Ohl, Maria Otero, Lydia Napitupulu, Joep Stevens, Claudia Townsend, and others for providing visitation data; Emily Adams for retrieving socioeconomic information; and Ralf Buckley, Peter Kareiva, Agi Kiss, and Johan du Toit for commenting on previous versions of this paper.

Author Contributions

The author(s) have made the following declarations about their contributions: Conceived and designed the experiments: AB RN MW AM. Performed the experiments: AB JB JG RN MW AM. Analyzed the data: AB JB JG AM. Wrote the paper: AB RN AM. Obtained grant: AB.

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