who led the battle of tours

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This Day In History : October 10

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Battle of Tours

At the Battle of Tours near Poitiers, France, Frankish leader Charles Martel, a Christian, defeats a large army of Spanish Moors, halting the Muslim advance into Western Europe. Abd-ar-Rahman, the Muslim governor of Cordoba, was killed in the fighting, and the Moors retreated from Gaul, never to return in such force.

Charles was the illegitimate son of Pepin, the powerful mayor of the palace of Austrasia and effective ruler of the Frankish kingdom. After Pepin died in 714 (with no surviving legitimate sons), Charles beat out Pepin’s three grandsons in a power struggle and became mayor of the Franks. He expanded the Frankish territory under his control and in 732 repulsed an onslaught by the Muslims.

Victory at Tours ensured the ruling dynasty of Martel’s family, the Carolingians. His son Pepin became the first Carolingian king of the Franks, and his grandson Charlemagne carved out a vast empire that stretched across Europe.

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The Battle of Tours - A Decisive Fight for Europe’s Future

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The early medieval world of our ancestors was built upon struggles and decisive battles. The emerging nations united the broken tribes, expanded their borders, conquered their enemies, and often enough - fended off invaders. But rare are the battles that really left a long lasting impact that echoed through the generations that followed.

Rare are such conflicts that changed the history of the world with their importance and decided the future of us all for centuries to come. And one of those rare, world-changing battles is the Battle of Tours - fought in 732 AD between the Christian Frankish forces and the invading Muslim Umayyad Caliphate.

This fierce and destructive conflict, that shaped the future of Europe and echoed through time, was a great gamble, fought against all odds. But it remains as one of the biggest lessons of Europe’s past, and today we are going in detail about that fated day in 732. 

A triumphant Charles Martel (mounted) faces Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi (right) at the Battle of Tours. Source: Bender235 / Public Domain .

The Prelude to the Battle of Tours

Around the very beginning of the 8 th century, in the year 700 AD, the Muslim Umayyad Caliphate was rapidly spreading its empire around the world. It was the second of the four great caliphates that emerged after the death of Muhammad and was one of the largest empires of the world at the time.

After conquering the lands of North Africa, they saw mainland Europe as the next prey for their conquests. From the shores of North Africa, they had a clear passage - in the form of the Gibraltar Strait. This would allow their forces to cross over onto the Iberian Peninsula , from which they would spread further inland.

At the time, Iberia was under the control of the Visigothic Kingdom, a centralized state under the rule of King Roderic. Nonetheless, the Umayyads crossed the strait in the year 711 AD, under the leadership of one Tariq ibn Ziyad, and soon after clashed with the Visigothic army in the Battle of Guadalete, in the same year, in the very south of Iberia.

The "Age of the Caliphs", shows the Umayyad dominance stretched from the Middle East to the Iberian Peninsula, including the port of Narbonne, c. 720. (McZusatz / Public Domain )

At the time of the Umayyad invasion, King Roderic was far in the north, attempting to fight a Basque rebellion. This unfortunately placed him in a bad situation, as he was forced to a long march south, to face this much bigger enemy. In the end, the Visigoths were defeated in the face of the overwhelming Muslim cavalry.

In the battle, King Roderic and most of the nobles of his kingdom lost their lives, which allowed the Umayyads to effectively conquer Iberia, step by step. This they managed in just a little under seven years. And once Iberia was theirs, Frankish Gaul was just a step away.

The only thing that divided the Umayyads from their prey - the Frankish Kingdom - were the Pyrenees Mountains . This was a fitting natural barrier - but it was in no way untraversable. In time, the Umayyads began crossing over and making incursions into the very south of Gaul. By 720 they conquered the southern province of Septimania.

In the following year, they focused on the large city to the immediate west, Toulouse, which they besieged. This siege was brought to an end by the prominent Frankish Duke Odo - who managed to overwhelm the Umayyad forces outside Toulouse and defeat them. Nonetheless, large numbers of Umayyads kept crossing over the Pyrenees and laying waste to the southern provinces of Gaul.

The Duchy of Aquitaine laid in the south and faced the brunt of this invasion. Its largest towns, Bordeaux and Toulouse were ravaged, and in no time the invaders reached even the Duchy of Burgundy to its north.

But it wasn’t until 732 that the Umayyad Caliphate truly amassed its forces with proper conquering intentions and adequate strength. The man that was at the head of this force was Abdul Rahman al Ghafiqi, the then-Governor General of Muslim Iberia. He led his forces across the Pyrenees once again and plundered the land and all the cities he came across.

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Abdul Rahman al Ghafiqi led his troops over the Pyrenees Mountains toward the Battle of Tours. (Jean-Christophe BENOIST / CC BY-SA 3.0 )

The Umayyads greatly coveted riches, and their main activity during this conquest was plunder. After completely ransacking Bordeaux once again, the Umayyad forces faced Duke Odo once more. Odo led his army in an attempt to stop the invasion as he did a few years before.

But this time, he was terribly outnumbered and outmaneuvered, and his forces were crushed. Realizing the gravity of the situation, and that his own lands of Aquitaine were overrun, Odo fled to the north seeking assistance from the de-facto ruler of the Frankish Kingdom - Charles Martel.

Before the Umayyad invasion Odo and Charles were enemies. Charles sought to expand his lordship over Aquitaine and Odo saw the Franks as invaders. But with this new and much greater threat, Odo had no choice but to seek help from the Franks. Charles Martel agreed to join up with him, but the “price” was Odo’s acceptance of Frankish overlordship. Odo agreed.

The Hammer Enters the Fray

Charles Martel was a seasoned ruler and a battle hardened veteran. His troops were equally experienced having been in constant clashes along the eastern borders of their kingdom, fighting neighboring tribes.

Charles also understood how important the situation was and began gathering his levies from all over the north. And he would show his shrewdness as a battle commander, when he carefully understood the intentions of his enemy. 

Meanwhile, the Umayyad forces moved slowly across the Frankish lands, their forces spread into war parties that ravaged the countryside and amassed an enormous amount of plunder. This “greedy” focus on war booty would greatly influence their future undoing. They had to take their time, as they greatly depended on the crop season for their food source.

But their destination was clear to Charles Martel. It was the rich city of Tours - prominent and wealthy, filled with abbeys of great importance. Thus, Charles placed his Frankish forces directly on the path of the coming Umayyads. He situated his army roughly in between the city of Tours and the ravaged town of Poitiers further south.

The Franks were placed close to the confluence of rivers Clain and Vienne, on a slightly elevated and forested hill. Charles Martel deliberately and shrewdly chose this position. First of all - he was outnumbered and knew it.

Map of the Battle of Tours with the position of Charles Martel's army. (Evzen M / Public Domain )

Thus he chose the cover of the forest to displace his troops and hide his number in hope to not reveal his disadvantage. Secondly - he chose a place where the Umayyads would have to enter into battle, as the only crossing over the rivers was behind the Frankish forces. Thirdly - the forest protected his troops - mainly the second lines - from the full brunt of a cavalry charge, and somewhat protected his sides from flanking attacks.

When the Umayyads approached the assembled Christian army, their leader Abdul Rahman al Ghafiqi - also a seasoned commander - knew that Charles Martel took the upper hand, by choosing his preferred place of battle. Even so, al Ghafiqi trusted in his strength and deployed for battle.

One thing he must have noticed is the difference in the troops - Umayyads relied heavily on cavalry, while the Franks were mostly footmen. But he failed to take several things into account.

The Muslim cavalry was lightly armored - they preferred to adorn themselves with chainmail and not much else in terms of armor. Riches and trinkets were much more to their liking.

They also rode willful Arabic horses, which were difficult to break in, and thus not the truly perfect cavalry mounts. Some historians also mention that this cavalry was in large part armed with spears - which were unseasoned and would break on first impact.

The Muslim cavalry rode willful Arabic horses during the Battle of Tours. (Trzęsacz / Public Domain )

On the other hand, the Frankish infantry was thoroughly seasoned. Most of the army were veterans, with only a small part of fresh recruits reserved in the second lines. They were well armored for the time, and well-armed as well. They stood packed in tight lines and ready for a cavalry charge.

But the battle did not begin immediately. The opposing forces “tested the waters”, with sporadic small skirmishes going on for seven days.

This was in truth a deliberate stalling from al Ghafiqi, who waited for his whole army to assemble fully. In the end, with the Umayyads fearing the approaching winter, they commenced battle on the seventh day - on the 10th of October 732 AD.

The Umayyad Wave That Broke On the Frankish Rock

The Umayyad commander, al Ghafiqi, heavily relied on his cavalry, even though he didn’t possess much knowledge about the assembled enemy. He sent waves of cavalry charges in an attempt to break the Frankish lines - but this did not happen. The seasoned Franks were tightly packed - shoulder to shoulder - and withstood all assaults.

The rare combination of slight elevation, good arms and armor, and tree cover allowed them to hold their ground - when it was almost impossible for infantry to hold against cavalry in medieval times. Even when some small parts of the line faltered and broke under the cavalry, the fresh second lines were quick to react - sealing the gap.

Frankish knight fighting against an Umayyad horseman. (Helix84 / Public Domain )

As the battle went on in that way, Duke Odo commenced a crucial flanking operation that greatly tipped the scales in Frankish favor. He gathered a cavalry force and flanked wide - reaching the distant Muslim encampment - i.e. their rear. This was where the Umayyad tents were and all of their abundant plunder.

Odo managed to inflict great losses here, retrieve the precious plunder, free around 200 captive Franks, and draw the eye of the enemy. But what happened next was more than he hoped for. Upon realizing that their camp and their plunder were under attack, many Umayyad units from the central battlefield rushed back in a frenzy to save their loot.

This was an unprecedented situation, one that al Ghafiqi never expected. His attempts at rallying his troops were in vain, and Charles Martel - who knew exactly what he was doing - seized this opportunity.

As the Umayyad forces dissipated to retrieve the loot, he swung his forces from left, right, and center, and engaged in both pursuit and encirclement. The remaining body of the Umayyads was surrounded and suffered immense casualties.

The chief of these was al Ghafiqi himself - who fell in battle while attempting to rally his troops. Meanwhile, Duke Odo swung north again and cut off the fleeing Umayyads, inflicting great losses. In effect, the Umayyad forces fled.

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Charles Martel gathered his cavalry at Battle of Tours and attacked the Umayyad encampment. (Levan Ramishvili / Public Domain )

Now, Charles Martel expected a second day of battles and remained in his position, treating the wounded and re-organizing. But another day never came. The Umayyads, with their commander dead, could not successfully organize another attack or choose a fitting leader. They had suffered great losses as well.

Charles Martel feared an ambush and would not descend from the hill at any cost. Eventually, he sent out extensive reconnaissance parties to survey the Umayyad forces - but only to learn that there were none. They had gathered all the remaining plunder they could and fled during the night - extremely hastily. They had returned to Iberia.

Charles Martel won a crushing and glorious victory that cemented his reputation of a noble and capable leader. He was praised all across Europe as the savior of the Christendom and the “Hammer that Broke the Muslims”. Thus he earned his nickname - Martel - meaning Charles the Hammer.

He subsequently expanded his rule over Aquitaine and successfully isolated the invaders to the southern region of Septimania, where they remained for another 27 years and were completely unable to break through. Charles’ wealth, influence, power, and ability led to the emergence of the Carolingian dynasty , which would rise and last for centuries to follow.

Charles Martel's military campaigns in Aquitaine, Septimania, and Provence after the Battle of Tour-Poitiers (734–742). (Iñaki LLM / CC BY-SA 3.0 )

Changing the Future of the World

The Europe of the early 18 th century desperately needed a capable and strong commander that would stop the Muslim Umayyad invaders dead in their tracks. And that commander was Charles Martel. He stood up to ravaging flood of conquerors and using his superior tactics, shrewdness, and reputation, he managed to win a crushing battle - against all odds. Like a beacon that kept burning throughout a storm, his Frankish warriors defied their enemy in battle. And it is this battle that changed the course of European history, and with that - the history of the World.

Top image: Medieval soldier at war. Credit: Andrey Kiselev / Adobe Stock

By Aleksa Vučković

Creasy, E. 2016. The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World . Enhanced Media.

Neiberg, M. 2003. Warfare in World History . Taylor & Francis.

Scott, J. 2011. Battle of Tours - A New Look at an Old Enemy . eBookIt.

I am a published author of over ten historical fiction novels, and I specialize in Slavic linguistics. Always pursuing my passions for writing, history and literature, I strive to deliver a thrilling and captivating read that touches upon history's most... Read More

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Muslim Invasions of Western Europe: The 732 Battle of Tours

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The Battle of Tours was fought during the Muslim invasions of Western Europe in the 8th century.

Armies & Commanders at the Battle of Tours

• Charles Martel
• 20,000-30,000 men
• Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi
• unknown, but perhaps as high as 80,000 men

Battle of Tours - Date

Martel's triumph at the Battle of Tours occurred on October 10, 732.

Background on the Battle of Tours 

In 711, the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate crossed into the Iberian Peninsula from Northern Africa and quickly began overrunning the region's Visigothic Christian kingdoms. Consolidating their position on the peninsula, they used the area as a platform for commencing raids over the Pyrenees into modern-day France. Initially meeting little resistance, they were able to gain a foothold and the forces of Al-Samh ibn Malik established their capital at Narbonne in 720. Commencing attacks against Aquitaine, they were checked at the Battle of Toulouse in 721. This saw Duke Odo defeat the Muslim invaders and kill Al-Samh. Retreating to Narbonne, Umayyad troops continued raiding west and north reached as far as Autun, Burgundy in 725.

In 732, Umayyad forces led by the governor of Al-Andalus, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, advanced in force into Aquitaine. Meeting Odo at the Battle of the River Garonne they won a decisive victory and commenced sacking the region. Fleeing north, Odo sought aid from the Franks. Coming before Charles Martel, the Frankish mayor of the palace, Odo was promised aid only if he promised to submit to the Franks. Agreeing, Martel began raising his army to meet the invaders. In the years previous, having assessed the situation in Iberia and the Umayyad attack on Aquitaine , Charles came to believe that a professional army, rather than raw conscripts, was needed to defend the realm from invasion. To raise the money necessary to build and train an army that could withstand the Muslim horsemen, Charles began seizing Church lands, earning the ire of the religious community.

Battle of Tours - Moving to Contact

Moving to intercept Abdul Rahman, Charles used secondary roads to avoid detection and allow him to select the battlefield. Marching with approximately 30,000 Frankish troops he assumed a position between the towns of Tours and Poitiers. For the battle, Charles selected a high, wooded plain which would force the Umayyad cavalry to charge uphill through unfavorable terrain. This included trees in front of the Frankish line which would aid in breaking up cavalry attacks. Forming a large square, his men surprised Abdul Rahman, who did not expect to encounter a large enemy army and forced the Umayyad emir to pause for a week to consider his options. This delay benefited Charles as it allowed him to summon more of his veteran infantry to Tours.

Battle of Tours - The Franks Stand Strong

As Charles reinforced, the increasingly cold weather began to prey on the Umayyads who were unprepared for the more northern climate. On the seventh day, after gathering all of his forces, Abdul Rahman attacked with his Berber and Arab cavalry. In one of the few instances where medieval infantry stood up to cavalry, Charles' troops defeated repeated Umayyad attacks. As the battle waged, the Umayyads finally broke through the Frankish lines and attempted to kill Charles. He was promptly surrounded by his personal guard who repulsed the attack. As this was occurring, scouts that Charles had sent out earlier were infiltrating the Umayyad camp and freeing prisoners and enslaved people.

Believing that the plunder of the campaign was being stolen, a large part of the Umayyad army broke off the battle and raced to protect their camp. This departure appeared as a retreat to their comrades who soon began to flee the field. While attempting to stop the apparent retreat, Abdul Rahman was surrounded and killed by Frankish troops. Briefly pursued by the Franks, the Umayyad withdrawal turned into a full retreat. Charles re-formed his troops expecting another attack the next day, but to his surprise, it never came as the Umayyads continued their retreat all the way to Iberia.

While exact casualties for the Battle of Tours are not known, some chronicles relate that Christian losses numbered around 1,500 while Abdul Rahman suffered approximately 10,000. Since Martel's victory, historians have argued over the battle's significance with some stating that his victory saved Western Christendom while others feel that its repercussions were minimal. Regardless, the Frankish victory at Tours, along with subsequent campaigns in 736 and 739, effectively stopped the advance of Muslim forces from Iberia allowing the further development of the Christian states in Western Europe.

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• Decisive Battles: Battle of Tours
• Battle of Tours: Primary Sources
• Biography of Charles Martel, Frankish Military Leader and Ruler
• What Was the Umayyad Caliphate?
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• Hundred Years' War: Battle of Poitiers
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Battle of Tours: Its Significance and Historical Implications

Celeste Neill

01 oct 2018.

On 10 October 732 Frankish General Charles Martel crushed an invading Muslim army at Tours in France , decisively halting the Islamic advance into Europe.

The Islamic advance

After the death of the Prophet Muhammed in 632 AD the speed of the spread of Islam was extraordinary, and by 711 Islamic armies were poised to invade Spain from North Africa. Defeating the Visigothic kingdom of Spain was a prelude to increasing raids into Gaul, or modern France, and in 725 Islamic armies reached as far north as the Vosgues mountains near the modern border with Germany .

Opposing them was the Merovingian Frankish kingdom , perhaps the foremost power in western Europe. However given the seemingly unstoppable nature of the Islamic advance into the lands of the old Roman Empire further Christian defeats seemed almost inevitable.

Map of the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 AD. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In 731 Abd al-Rahman, a Muslim warlord north of the Pyrenees who answered to his distant Sultan in Damascus, received reinforcements from North Africa. The Muslims were preparing for a major campaign into Gaul.

The campaign commenced with an invasion of the southern kingdom of Aquitaine, and after defeating the Aquitanians in battle Abd al-Rahman’s army burned their capital of Bordeaux in June 732. The defeated Aquitanian ruler Eudes fled north to the Frankish kingdom with the remnants of his forces in order to plead for help from a fellow Christian, but old enemy: Charles Martel .

Martel’s name meant “the hammer” and he had already many successful campaigns in the name of his lord Thierry IV, mainly against other Christians such as the unfortunate Eudes, who he met somewhere near Paris . Following this meeting Martel ordered a ban , or general summons, as he prepared the Franks for war.

14th century depiction of Charles Martel (middle). Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Battle of Tours

Once his army had gathered, he marched to the fortified city of Tours, on the border with Aquitaine, to await the Muslim advance. After three months of pillaging Aquitaine, al-Rahman obliged.

His army outnumbered that of Martel but the Frank had a solid core of experienced armoured heavy infantry who he could rely upon to withstand a Muslim cavalry charge.

With both armies unwilling to enter the bloody business of a Medieval battle but the Muslims desperate to pillage the rich cathedral outside the walls of Tours, an uneasy standoff prevailed for seven days before the battle finally began. With winter coming al-Rahman knew that he had to attack.

The battle began with thundering cavalry charges from Rahman’s army but, unusually for a Medieval battle, Martel’s excellent infantry weathered the onslaught and retained their formation. Meanwhile, Prince Eudes’ Aquitanian cavalry used superior local knowledge to outflank the Muslim armies and attack their camp from the rear.

Christian sources then claim that this caused many Muslim soldiers to panic and attempt to flee to save their loot from the campaign. This trickle became a full retreat, and the sources of both sides confirm that al-Rahman died fighting bravely whilst trying to rally his men in the fortified camp.

The battle then ceased for the night, but with much of the Muslim army still at large Martel was cautious about a possible feigned retreat to lure him out into being smashed by the Islamic cavalry. However, searching the hastily abandoned camp and surrounding area revealed that the Muslims had fled south with their loot. The Franks had won.

Despite the deaths of al-Rahman and an estimated 25,000 others at Tours, this war was not over. A second equally dangerous raid into Gaul in 735 took four years to repulse, and the reconquest of Christian territories beyond the Pyrenees would not begin until the reign of Martel’s celebrated grandson Charlemagne.

Martel would later found the famous Carolingian dynasty in Frankia, which would one day extend to most of western Europe and spread Christianity into the east.

Tours was a hugely important moment in the history of Europe, for though the battle of itself was perhaps not as seismic as some have claimed, it stemmed the tide of Islamic advance and showed the European heirs of Rome that these foreign invaders could be defeated.

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The Battle of Tours - 732 AD      fr   de ,   en ,  

Charles Martel was a ruler of the Carolingian Frankish Empire in the early 8 th century AD. The empire encompassed the territories of much of modern day France, western Germany, Switzerland, as well as Belgium and the Netherlands, and was the dominant Christian power in Western Europe at the time. Having won a civil war between two competing kingdoms in 724, Charles had secured his position as head ruler of the entire Carolingian Empire, but had not yet been granted the title of King.

Although he was constantly repelling Saxon and Bavarian armies, as well as other threats, the empire was for the most part secure. Charles supported St. Boniface and other missionaries in their efforts to convert all remaining German tribes to Christianity as a way of uniting his region. The European continent was slowly becoming more prosperous and stable. But a new threat had begun working its way towards the heart of Western Civilization 100 years prior to Charles’ rule.

Islam Expanding

In the Middle East, the religion of Islam was formed in 622 AD. The region was quickly united under the new religion and then began to conquer more distant lands. By 711 Islamic armies had crossed the Gibraltar Straight and entered into Europe by way of present day Spain. It was from here that they began to set up new kingdoms and seek to conquer other parts of Europe, primarily for plunder of any type of treasure they could find.

The indigenous peoples of Europe referred to the Islamic invaders as the Saracens. From Spain the door stood wide open for the Saracens to enter into France, the conquest of which would have likely been followed by all the rest of Europe, and might have resulted in the banishment of Christianity from the Earth. At this time Christianity was not universally known or practiced, even by those nations which we today regard as the foremost in civilization. Great parts of Britain, Germany, Denmark, and Russia were still pagan and barbarous.

In 712 the Saracens entered into France and began pillaging the region for treasure. In 725 Anbessa, the Saracen governor of Spain, personally leads an army across the Pyrenees Mountains into France and takes the strongly fortified town of Carcassone. During the battle he receives a fatal wound, and the Saracen army retires into the nearby town of Narbonne before retreating back to the safety of Spain.

In 732 the Saracens invade France again under the command of Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman. They reach Bordeaux and begin to lay siege to the town when they get word of rich treasures in the Basilica of St. Martin in the city of Tours. They set off towards this area with the intent to plunder it for all it's worth.

Up to this point, the Carolingian Empire, ruled by King Charles, had no need to oppose the Saracens since they had not invaded any of his territories. The area of the Saracens plunder had been Aquitaine, an independent kingdom in southwestern France ruled by King Eude. Having learned of the damage being done to his neighboring kingdom, Charles becomes convinced of the danger presented to his territories. If Aquitaine were to be defeated, his kingdom would surely be next. Charles begins to march an army towards the Saracen invaders to confront them on his own terms.

While Abd al Rahman is advancing towards Tours, he receives intelligence regarding the advance of Charles and his army. He decides to fall back on Poitiers in order to occupy a more advantageous field of battle. Charles, leading an army of such size rarely seen in Europe, crosses the Loire River and joins the remains of the army of Aquitaine.

They come in sight of the Arabs on October 10 th , 732. The enemy spots Charles and his army and at first hesitates. The two armies remain camped, staring each other down, for seven days. Abd al Rahman at last gives the signal to attack. The Saracens rush the Franks with all their might but the Frankish front line holds. The battle rages on until late in the day, when a terrible clamor is heard from behind the Saracen army. It is King Eude, attacking the Saracen camp, stealing all of their ill-gotten plunder. The Saracen army frantically rushes back to protect their possessions.

In this moment of confusion the Franks advance. Abd al Rahman is killed in the chaos. The Saracens regain control of their camp. By this time the sun is beginning to set, and Charles decides to wait until the next day to resume combat, not wanting to risk losing any more troops at night.

The next morning the Franks awake early and assemble their army, expecting to rejoin battle with their enemy. They wait, but no enemy appears. They cautiously approach the Saracen camp and find it completely empty. The Saracens had taken advantage of the night and begun their retreat back towards Spain, leaving most of their plunder behind. As the battlefield was surveyed that day, it was realized that a vast number of Saracen men had been slain. The Franks counted their losses and found that only 1500 of their men had been killed.

Charles is finally proclaimed King of the Carolingian Empire, and for his enormous victory he receives the surname of Martel, "The Hammer". He would later become the grandfather of Charlemagne. The Carolingian Empire becomes the Holy Roman Empire, with Charlemagne proclaimed Emperor by the Pope on Christmas Day, 800 AD. This empire survives for over 1000 years until it is formally dissolved in 1806.

The battle of Tours marks a major turning point in the history of Western Civilization. One where the spread of Islam into Europe was reversed, and Christianity begins to give the people of Europe something more in common with each other. By the year 1000 AD, the continent would be doing fairly well. It would be generally free from foreign attack and steadily creating a more prosperous future.

Do not assume that I have come to bring peace to the earth; I have not come to bring peace, but a sword. Matthew 10:34

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Dona Nobis Pacem

Western Civilization prior to World War I

The Ever Increasing Size of the Known Universe

Romantic - The History of a Word

73 - 209 - Thanks for the detailed story of the Battle of Lepanto… as a dedicated lover-of-Venice, I have seen the paintings in the Doges Palace and knew of its significance. Here are the details. As noted, this ranks w/the defense of Vienna in 1683(?); check,as well, the legendary defense of Malta sometime in the late 1400’s; as deep as it gets.

71 - 187 - Thank you so much for this.

71 - 189 - You're welcome. Thank you for reading.

71 - 204 - Too kind :) Thanks for reading Karen.

71 - 203 - Wonderful precise information, Thanks so much !

71 - 217 - Thanks for sharing inspiring rare history on Druids. Even I'm Indonesian..don't know why I like to.learn on old European belief systems such as paganism & druids :)

69 - 177 - Sorry, but I do wish people who write articles mentioning astrology would go to the trouble of actually learning about astrology. The zodiac has nothing whatsoever to do with constellations, apart from the Greeks giving names to the signs from some of the constellations at that time. The zodiac was designed by ancient Babylonians, based on their calendar of 12 (and occasionally 13) lunar months, with 12 equal signs fixed to the March equinox. It has always been about the signs. The Western Tropical Zodiac will always begin with 0 degrees Aries on the March equinox and the stars have no relevance to this at all. The precession of the equinoxes and the alleged astrological ages are a minor oddity which astrologers generally have very little interest in.

69 - 186 - If the stars have no relevance to astrology, what relevance do the planets have? Are the positions of the planets determined in relation to the “signs” as given by astrology, or are their positions determined in relation to their apparent positions relative to the ecliptic and the stars visible in that celestial band.? If we’re to disregard the apparent positions of the stars, why bother to observe the positions of the planets, either?

69 - 199 - This article is about precession, which is obviously tangential to astrology, but the article never mentions the word. I'm not sure what you're going on about. The subject matter, especially in reference to constellations, is absolutely appropriate, as the ancients clearly were concerned about the positions of stars and planets, to think otherwise is absurd. The Egyptians understood the ages beginning and ending with certain star positions, whoever built the lion sphinx statue aimed it at Leo (the Lion CONSTELLATION), which tells us that it was likely built during that zodiacal age. I'm not sure how you can disregard the obvious tie-ins to key moments in history with what's marked out in the sky via constellations.

66 - 176 - Truly David Livingstone was a greatest missionary and explorer in Africa no one else other than him from Europe has left such a record. He will always be remembered for his great work in Africa.

64 - 128 - Wonderful story. Excellent history. Great Christmas Song too! Especially Luke 6:38

64 - 130 - I enjoyed playing piano recitals of Good King Wenceslas as a child - for the old folks in the nursing homes in our town. Thank you for the history on this beloved King.

64 - 135 - Thank you Teresa for your kindness to the elderly. Nursing homes are filled with lonely souls who sincerely appreciate such acts of generosity.

64 - 210 - I’ve played this for years! even posted a recording on YouTube under “Safe Sax Trio” from December 2020. it has a special connotation as Mi amor,Blanka, is Czech, born and grew up in Prague,Bohemia…St.Wenceslas being the patron Saint of the Czech People.????

61 - 95 - h

60 - 125 - "The Indo-Europeans were a people group originating in the plains of Eastern Europe, north of the Baltic and Caspian Seas in present day Ukraine and southern Russia." Surely you meant the Black sea and not the Baltic....

60 - 126 - Ha, yes I meant the Black Sea. Thanks Pgolay.

56 - 83 - Wild temperature swings throughout the years!

56 - 84 - Indeed! All the more reason to be thankful for the forests we are enjoying today.

55 - 137 - Interesting article! I'm curious, what were the sources about Hippocrates and his communications with Athens and Persia in regard to the plague?

55 - 138 - Thank you! Hippocrates' own writings on this subject have been translated into English. Wesley D. Smith has some good modern English translations: https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0674995260 Artaxerxes sends a letter to Hippocrates begging for help: "the renown of whose techne has reached even to me, as much gold as he wants, and anything else that he lacks in abundance, and send him to me" Hippocrates replies: "Tell the King I have sufficient food, clothing, and shelter, and all the necessities that I require for life, and that I have no wish for Persian wealth or to save foreigners from disease, since they are enemies of the Greeks."

55 - 145 - I really like Athens because it is truly a unique place with a rich history and unique distinctive features. Of course, there are a great deal of reasons to fall in love with this city because it’s a true calling card of Greece. After reading your article, I became more convinced that it is an incredible city in which ancient traditions and modernity harmoniously intertwine with each other into a single whole. It is so cool that you mentioned the Temple of Poseidon because I think that it’s such a wonderful way to delve into the history of Athens and feel the atmosphere of ancient times. I think that Athens is the best city in Greece for wine connoisseurs because it seems to me that you can try delicious and rare Greek wines there, getting unforgettable impressions. Art and culture in Athens are so incredible and multifaceted that it can’t leave you indifferent. It is an indisputable fact that the halls of the Museum of Cycladic Art are impressive in their scope and they have very interesting interactive expositions. It is so cool that there are so many incredible things and I think you will always find something to look at.

43 - 14 - Interesting article. An enjoyable read. Thanks

43 - 15 - Glad you enjoyed it!

40 - 149 - I was wondering where that cross at the top of the page is located? It is quite impressive and I stare at it a great deal! If you can help me I would greatly appreciate it! God bless you!!!

40 - 152 - William, The peak is Punta Selassa in the province of Cuneo, Italy. You can hike to the cross starting from the village of Calcinere on the Po River in the valley below. God bless you too!

39 - 81 - IS IT Possible to buy a hybrid checknut IMMUNE TO THE BLIGHT?

39 - 116 - very good information,we have many of these trees in our neighborhood. they were originally planted in the 1930's when the area was a berry farm and orchard. they have now spread over about a 50 acre residential area growing in just about any vacant space and producing huge amounts of nuts. Gig harbor washington.

39 - 180 - god, I had never heard of this. what a tragic story. Those forests must have been a true sight to see.

39 - 181 - I appreciate that you mentioned that chestnut trees are included in our holiday experience. My aunt mentioned last night that she and my mother planned to have information about hybrid chestnut trees for the farm project development they want. She asked if I had any idea what would be the best option to consider. I love this helpful article, I'll tell her she can consult a trusted hybrid chestnut trees service in town as they can provide information about their trees.

39 - 184 - This is incredibly sad. We have lost so much….thank you…anyone who has protected this wonderful, God given tree.

38 - 65 - Wow! That was quite an ordeal.

38 - 124 - Amazing story! Growing up in the Antelope Valley (Edwards AFB's location), we heard of a great number of accidents as really smart and competent test pilots pushed the limits of technology. My dad knew one "sled driver" who flew sailplanes as a hobby!

37 - 61 - The Frost Fair sounds like fun.

37 - 62 - Interesting article. This is the first I've heard of " Frost Fair ".

37 - 63 - I imagine it would be a lot of fun. Spontaneous community events like this always have a unique feeling to them.

37 - 64 - It was definitely a special phenomenon in the history of England.

36 - 11 - Very informative article. I love watching the lady play the organ at church and have always wondered what's under the hood.

36 - 12 - A very interesting and informative article. I have often wondered what the stops were for. The history and description of operation answered many questions.Thankyou.

36 - 13 - Glad it could help Kim. There is certainly quite a bit going on inside of these beautiful machines.

36 - 79 - Very well thought out article. I ran a small organ shop for 40 years that built some major organs around the world - one in Toyota-shi Concert Hall with about 4000 pipes. I am now retired, but want to write a book to pass my thoughts on to future generations of organ builders. Could I borrow some of the historical information you put together as you have said so much with less words and really good. Thanks!

36 - 80 - Thanks for your kind words John. Yes please use whatever you feel would be useful, just reference this website as a source. The goal of this website is to simply pass on our history to future generations. So if I can help with your book at all please reach out to me. Use any of the images or references in this article if you think they would be useful.

36 - 87 - A most helpful article which has answered many questions The organ is fascinating and invaluable. It hasn’t yet replaced orchestras

36 - 88 - A very interesting article, but who squeezed the bellows? Was it done by boys and how many and would they have been building up the air pressure for a time before the organ was to be played?

36 - 89 - In all my research I found that a volunteer from the church would power the smaller organs. For larger organs someone was paid to pump the bellows. These larger ones would have 3 or more bellows.

36 - 96 - Liked it! Very useful

36 - 140 - The article mentions that Roman and Byzantine organs were made of bronze (copper + tin) pipes, but there's nothing mentioned about modern organs. Are they made of brass (copper + zinc)?

36 - 188 - Thanks for this great article

35 - 58 - Such an incredible voyage.

35 - 59 - you should write an article about cook's third voyage

35 - 60 - Its in the works, check back here in a few months. Glad you enjoyed this one.

34 - 54 - This article is a nice little gift for the upcoming Christmas season.

34 - 55 - The song touches my life day by day and I needed musical copy of the same (notation). Thanx

34 - 56 - thanks NOEL! I pick a theme for Christmas each year and this is it for 2019. Christmas is everyday - as Jesus is with us everyday, renewing us with his love! Noel! Maria

34 - 57 - Great choice! True that Jesus is with us every day, not only around Christmas. Merry Christmas Maria

33 - 52 - Nice article!!!

33 - 53 - Thank you! It was a lot of work but I think it turned out not half bad.

31 - 46 - This makes me curious as to why Christianty succeeded spreading predominately westward from its Roman epicenter, yet failed doing the same eastward. Any ideas?

31 - 47 - How does the basilica and its parts like the nav relate to the Christian ceremony?

31 - 48 - Hi! I'm an architecture student and I would like to know what are other examples of Early Christian Churches and also their parts (name of the rooms, space, etc.); I just wanted them as references for my future subjects :D Thanks a lot

31 - 49 - I would have to do some more research on the later years of Christianity, but I would say that Christianity did spread eastward. This was likely halted by the pushback of Islam in the seventh century. Egypt was as much of a Christian stronghold as Rome until the Muslim conquest in the seventh century.

31 - 50 - The Nave is a space specifically reserved for procession of the choir or acolytes from the entrance towards the front of the church. Church goers sit in pews on the outer sides of the nave. Next is the Transept, which is where a priest or minister gives the sermon. Above that and at the front of the sanctuary is the choir loft.

31 - 51 - I spent quite a bit of time researching the churches in this article and these were the oldest ones I could find. If I find more I will certainly add them to the article. See the comment above for a list of the separate rooms of a church. Thanks for reading and good luck to you in architecture school!

31 - 75 - Are there any other examples of early Christians of this time period translating roman civic buildings into their new society?

31 - 76 - Ben, the churches listed in this article are the earliest ones that I could find that were constructed originally for the specific purpose of housing Christian worship services. Other churches exist from this time period that were simply converted from the worship of Roman gods. The Temple d'Auguste et de Livie in France is one such example. So old Roman temples were converted to churches but there is very little evidence that Roman civic buildings were converted to churches.

31 - 90 - Hello, thank you for an intresting article. Would you recommend any online resources or books one could use to explore Christian Architecture space? I will appreciate your feedback.

31 - 91 - Monuments of the Early Church by Walter Lowrie was my main source for this article. You can read it here . Other than this book, there are very few sources available for architecture of the early church, so I had to look at individual churches and compare them to established architectural norms from the rest of society at the time. There are plenty of resources available for church architecture after 1000 AD, such as Britannica.

31 - 97 - hi,this is malar.thank you for your wonderful and helpfull article. i need an article about egptian civilization like this. did you have any idea about preparing it?

31 - 98 - Glad you enjoyed it Malar. I have not thought of looking into Egyptian architecture. But it would certainly be interesting to see if the architecture made some kind of progression as the centuries went on. I may look into that in the future, thanks for your suggestion!

31 - 101 - Hi, i enjoyed reading your post. I wanted to know in what period does Paleo-Christian architecture took place?

31 - 103 - Thanks! Paleo-Christian describes the time period before the Byzantine Era. This could be before the dedication of Constantinople in 330, or before the Age of Justinian in the 6th century.

31 - 105 - A roof is arguably the most important aspect of every house - it protects your property and those living in it. As time goes by, the structure or appearance of the roof may be damaged, and need repairs or maintenance. Contact our roofing experts today for a free, no-obligation appointment and estimate. https://www.stgeorgeroofing.com.au/

31 - 117 - Hi, thank you for all the historic information here. Please can you throw more light on how the church started under the trees and haw they transcended to church buildings. Thanks.

31 - 200 - One of the most iconic features of early Christian architecture is the basilica plan, characterized by a rectangular nave, side aisles, and an apse.

30 - 112 - Thank you for the story of 3 amazing musicians

30 - 113 - Thanks for reading David!

30 - 133 - beautiful story! i love her work and im so happy her storys getting told more and more

30 - 178 - I was watching the movie song of Love and I wanted to find out some different questions and this website popped up and I was mesmerized. I love this! Thank you for sharing this

30 - 179 - Thank you for reading! I have never seen that movie, thanks for recommending it.

30 - 190 - Wonderful story, on May 7th I am going to Toronto for the concert in memory of Brahms(it his birthday),very excited !

30 - 191 - That sounds amazing! I hope you enjoy the concert, thanks for reading.

30 - 212 - i first learnt it from my piano teacher,but i love this story,so i decided to search it up.Your web was the first to pop up, so i clicked in and discovered a lot more deeper in their relationship.Overall,i love your informational text!

30 - 213 - i first learnt it from my piano teacher,but i love this story,so i decided to search it up.Your web was the first to pop up, so i clicked in and discovered a lot more deeper in their relationship.Overall,i love your informational text!

29 - 44 - What a beautifully written and illustrated article.

29 - 45 - Thanks Paul. Its a lot of fun to put yourself in the shoes of people in the past, and try to see the Universe from their perspective.

29 - 104 - I enjoyed your paper very much. Thank you for writing it.

29 - 201 - Thanks for the wrintings please provide more coz i loved these ones.

28 - 42 - Makes one wonder: without horrific barbarism, would have global civilization expansion been delayed?

28 - 43 - The threat of unexpected attacks probably did motivate people to work together a little more for the purpose of defense. I would say that adversity of any kind betters individuals as well as civilization as a whole.

27 - 40 - Wowzers! I can't wait till the next solar eclipse!!!

27 - 41 - I loved your blog article. Really Cool. dkekkcedkdca

26 - 37 - This website really helped me when doing an assignment on James Cook! Thanks so much for the great information on here

26 - 38 - write an article about his third voyage as well

26 - 39 - Glad it could help Ben! I have an article about Cook's third voyage in the works so check back here in the future. Thanks for reading!

25 - 36 - Thank you Janet! I try to make these articles as short and concise as possible but most of the time they end up being so long because there's just so much to say. Glad to hear I accomplished those goals on this article and I'm glad you enjoyed it!

25 - 35 - Enjoyed your history of personal wealth. Quick, easy to read and understand and interesting! Looking forward to reading the other articles. Thank you for sharing Janet ( In California )

25 - 169 - Very nice… I really like your blog as well as website. Very useful information and worth reading. Thanks.

24 - 71 - Thank you for your summation of the Christmas Truce. I was searching for the hymn, "Dona Nobis", when I came across your article. Now I can share both historical items with my nine-year-old granddaughter who is very interested in what our soldiers have endured and done for us.

24 - 72 - Thank you for reading Susan. I'm happy to hear that younger people are interested in our ancestor's sacrifice for us. Its wonderful that you're taking the time to talk to her about these kinds of things, they are not easy to hear or completely understand. When she is older you could share another article I have regarding The Great War titled Western Civilization prior to World War I .

24 - 93 - I heard about this truce many years ago and just had to try and find the background. I have thought of this for many many years and it pulls at my heart strings every time I hear Silent Night. Nit being directly connected to Military I wonder, “do this truce still happen each year on Christmas Eve?” I sure hope it do. War is such a terrible thing. My wish is for everyone lot live in peace. What a wonderful world it would be.

24 - 214 - very cool article.

24 - 215 - Hi, why this passage

23 - 25 - Years ago we sang with a quire the song Dona Nobis. During that song I had to sing English text. The words were if I rember well If I had word... Do you happen to know where I can find this version of Dona Nobis. Gr, Frans Pennings Cuijk. Holland.

23 - 26 - If this is in reference to the Mozart traditional Dona Nobis Pacem that is commonly featured many times on U Tube etc, The one with 5 verses each of different melody. why can it not be found as a recording, cd or whatever for sale, anywhere. Do you know a source? John P. Thank you.

23 - 27 - lovely

23 - 28 - I live in a retirement village and am aged 80. Eight of us, with the aid of one who was a music teacher, are trying to learn Dona Nobis Pacem to sing at our village's annual variety concert - without an accompanist! Please wish us luck! :)

23 - 29 - 1. Snobbish attitude towards "folk Music) 2. Peace is welcomed all the year round, not only at Christmastime.

23 - 30 - Frans, If you are wanting to download the version on this page you should try this link below. They have three versions of the song there. If you are looking for a version of the text in another language please let me know and I will make a page with the text in that language for you. http://www.westminsterdayton.org/music/listen.html

23 - 31 - More like a distain for what is called "academic." I agree but the point still stands that it is sung more often around Christmastime.

23 - 32 - Good luck Margaret. Our Men's choir in Sydney sang another (non-Mozart) version of Pacem. Halfway through, we froze, and only slowly found our peace.

23 - 33 - Thank you, John. Hope we don't freeze, but then it's warmer up here in Brisbane. :)

23 - 34 - Good luck to you Margaret! Post a link to your performance if at all possible. This is a beautiful song and every rendition is unique.

23 - 92 - no

23 - 121 - I must say I'm really impressed by the nice write-up you have here. You actually did a great job, unlike most bloggers I've seen on the internet talking about this same topic. Just reading the first few paragraphs, I was already locked in the content. Bravo and keep up the good work. If you have the time, I would appreciate it if you could help me rate my blog .

23 - 127 - Thank you for providing this service! My husband and I are doing a concert at a retirement home tomorrow (voice and Ukrainian bandura) with a mixture of Ukrainian and other music,and I couldn't locate the sheet music to check what to say about this song's origins in the introduction. I typed Dona Nobis Pacem into Google, and boom, there was your article with exactly what I needed! 16th-17th century unknown German composer.

23 - 134 - Bach's "Dona Nobis Pacem" in his great B minor mass is as beautiful as music or man can get.

22 - 119 - not good

21 - 22 - Abd al Rahman needed just a little more patience. Islam would take over Europe. Sadly,the pride, heritage and national boundaries of these countries are disappearing.

21 - 23 - Damn i love history i hope i dont die soon so i can see the advancement of modern society.

21 - 24 - That does appear to be the case at the moment. But it is anyone's guess what the next era in history will be like.

21 - 82 - This is a great summary of the Battle of Tours. It amazes me that this great battle is not more known to western society. As you say in the final para "a major turning point in western civilisation" yet very few know it.

21 - 86 - Thanks Peter. I wish we were taught more history in general but especially events like this one. We all have an amazing story.

21 - 85 - If you do then make sure to write your experiences down somehow. People in the future will be very interested in your perspective.

21 - 114 - Tg

21 - 171 - Thanks, I love history and believe that it is important for us all to understand our past so that we can learn from our mistakes. This article gave me heaps of info. Thanks for being willing to take the time to help others learn about our past. It truly is amazing - Anonymous

19 - 18 - Thanks for an astute summary. I am currently reading Barbara Tuchman's book on this period "The Proud Tower". What an amazing era. Such hubris. Such arrogance. Unfortunately, as always those taking the risks and making idiot decisions did not pay the bill. In fact they became more wealthy out of the war. What do you thing the next period in world history will bring? At least today there is no irrational optimism about the future as at the end of the nineteenth century. Maybe that is a start?

19 - 19 - Very interesting and insightful. Perhaps an article on the Lost Generation would be a good companion piece. I believe WW2 broke out in 1939, not 1940 (unless one counts the Asian-Pacific theater in which hostilities began in 1937).

19 - 20 - The end of any era in history severely challenges a culture's values. If you were to question national pride or absolute duty to your country prior to WWI you would likely have been executed. This shows just how entrenched cultural values can be. That being said, any prediction of what the next era in our history will be would be offensive to just about anyone who read it. I will guess that a civil war in England will be the event at which historians in the future will determine as the marker for the end of the Modern Era. I tend to wish there was more irrational optimism about the future in our time. WWI was a tremendous event matched only by the 30 years war or the Plague in its destructiveness. Maybe quite a bit of our cultural energy was destroyed as a result of the Great War. Thank you for the book recommendation, I'll definitely give it a look.

19 - 21 - Thanks for the suggestion! I will add that to my list of future articles. The great thing about writing these is that in doing the research you find so many ideas for new articles. Fixed the date too, thank you RT.

19 - 136 - Hitler was not good!

19 - 173 - What is a troy a reference to?

18 - 17 - This explanation is an oft-repeated myth. The bedrock is deeper below the surface in the areas below Canal Street than it is in region from the Flatiron district up to 42nd between. See http://observer.com/2012/01/uncanny-valley-the-real-reason-there-are-no-skyscrapers-in-the-middle-of-manhattan/

18 - 198 - Engaging read! This post brilliantly unpacks the geological foundations of NYC, underpinning its architectural prowess. It's the unseen hero of the city's skyline.

17 - 70 - A very interesting piece of history.

17 - 73 - Glad you enjoyed it!

17 - 74 - Love reading history raise of christianity.

17 - 99 - wow! so interesting. helped so much!

17 - 100 - is this site credible?

17 - 102 - It is as credible as the available source material. I list all references on each article. If you have a different perspective please feel free to email me or leave a comment. Thanks for reading!

17 - 107 - Thanks for this information. This helped me a lot! :D

17 - 108 - Thanks for this information. This helped me a lot! :D

17 - 111 - HI

17 - 115 - Very interesting information. How the living religion, Christianity has spread around the world like this miracle is an open proof that JESUS is living and He changes lives and a help in times of helplessness.

17 - 118 - Constantine was a jerk

17 - 120 - thanks

17 - 139 - Very nice article I am a student and this helped me learn a lot in the 6th grade!

17 - 144 - Very Good!

17 - 142 - Very interesting about his conversion to Christianity

17 - 143 - learning heaps

17 - 146 - Interesting

17 - 147 - Constantine is a very interesting bloke. Thanks to all the chaps at Classic History!

17 - 148 - thanks

17 - 156 - This is a great resource of knowledge for my kindergarteners!!!

17 - 158 - Thanks Ian! I'm happy it has helped!

17 - 159 - I love this cite! very credible 10/10 great resource for some fun reading!

17 - 175 - love it !!!

17 - 185 - i dont like this cause it didnt talk about MLK

17 - 206 - ????????????

17 - 205 - stupid

17 - 202 - You are so fake. There is no god. Shut up, just, shut up!

17 - 207 - Very good

17 - 211 - All thanks to Jesus,for his mercy

17 - 216 - this app is so amazing it js makes me want to slap eian

16 - 16 - Meine Mutter war eine geborene Bach.Besteht Event.eine Verbindung zu Johann Sebastian?Ich wurde es unbedingt wissen wollen .Irgend wo ist mir das ubermittelt worden.Bitte helfen Sie mir.Danke im Voraus-

15 - 182 - I'd like to use the above graphic as a sidebar to an upcoming equinox post at EarthSky. My article informs the reader of the intriguing fact that the tip of a shadow stick (gnomon) follows a straight (west-to-east) path on the day of an equinox. If given permission, I plan to credit the graphic to Classic History and to provide a link to this Eratosthenes page. Thank you for your consideration!

15 - 183 - Bruce, Yes please feel free to use anything you want so long as you reference this website as a source. Here is a slightly larger resolution image. Thanks for reading!

13 - 166 - Please include date of publication as I am trying to cite this article for school

12 - 10 - I was intrigued by Origin of Romanticism, how it changed its meaning over in a short span of time. From its lovers escapade into beautiful spots of nature to non- tangent expression of emotion and dramatism. thank you very much for this insight. grateful - sheera Betnag

12 - 69 - And wonder how it might change in the future as well. Glad you enjoyed the article and thank you for reading Sheera.

12 - 150 - This post was truly worthwhile to read. I wanted to say thank you for the key points you have pointed out as they are enlightening.

12 - 208 - As a Chinese, I've got the origin of romance! Thank u a lot.

9 - 0 - test'

5 - 151 - how should i reference this website?

5 - 153 - You could use Source: www.ClassicHistory.net Author: Thomas Acreman

4 - 7 - Keep on writing, great job!

4 - 8 - Congratulations. Agrees with the Welsh versions I was taught at school in the 1930s and 40s and what I read and gathered afterwards. I am now interested in finding out how much effect would 350 year of Roman rule have had on the Britons and why was it that the Romano Britons were so complacent and lax to be overtaken by the pagan immigrant settlers from Saxony in c400B.C.

4 - 9 - Thanks so much! I plan to keep on writing for years. My goal is to write at least one article per month.

4 - 78 - Thanks Gordon. I should have read my own title, where it was named Britain.

4 - 77 - "The island nation currently known as England?!" That's funny; I live here, and we call it Great Britain.

4 - 131 - Misspellings: "every forrest and hillside" (forest) "the furry of battle" (fury) "He employed them all to weather their captivity with bravery and courage, and to be strong men and women" (implored? impelled?) "an ivory thrown" (throne)

4 - 132 - Thanks JD. This is one of the first articles I wrote for this website and I really need to rewrite it.

4 - 167 - This story does, at least, acknowledge that the tale of Julius Caesar conquering Britain is not true! JC was ejected more than once. It was Cartimandua who betrayed Caradoc.. in the time of Claudius. BTW… No celts in Britain which was named for Brutus, grandson of Anaeas of Troy. Anaeas also features in the story of the founding of Rome. I.e., the peoples were related. The Cymry were not ‘primitive’!

3 - 1 - I love visiting the cross but, there's one thing that drives me nuts. Vietnam was not a war it was an armed conflict, not one of the 5 presidents that were in office during this time [1945 to 1972] did NOT declare war on the Viet Cong nor on North Vietnam.

3 - 3 - Are small weddings allowed Infront of the cross ?

3 - 4 - What camera was used here?

3 - 2 - Indeed, but the purpose of the cross is to remember those who answered their call to service and how much better the world is for their sacrifice. To that goal I think the cross does a fine job.

3 - 5 - I am not affiliated with Sewanee in any way but yes, I have seen a wedding there. It looked very peaceful and beautiful. There is a link to their website on this page which would be a good place to look for a contact number for the University.

3 - 6 - I believe I just used an old iPhone 4s for both of these photos.

3 - 109 - Why are those who severed in the Civil War not memorialized as well?

3 - 110 - Because the cross was originally built to memorialize those who served and died in World War I. Plaques were only added for those who served in wars after WWI. It was ultimately decided that the cross would only serve as a memorial for those who served and died in wars during the 20th century. From The University of the South: "Sewanee’s Memorial Cross honors the students and alumni of the University of the South and the Sewanee Military Academy and the citizens of Franklin County who fought and those who lost their lives in service to their country in the wars of the last century."

3 - 161 - Can someone in a wheelchair be able to get to the cross fairly easy?

3 - 162 - Yes, parking is available at the cross and the walkway to the cross is only slightly uphill.

2 - 0 - Nice article. The lake actually rarely freezes and only enough to walk on less than once every 10 years and only for a few days. In 2006 it was 29 days but otherwise it is clear and the ferries run year round.

-1 - 66 - Thanks for sharing your thoughts on History. Regards

-1 - 67 - I enjoyed your article on Charles Martel. Thank you for maintaining this beautiful site!

-1 - 68 - Thank you! I enjoyed researching and writing that one too. Thanks for reading and Merry Christmas.

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The battle of tours, - introduction -.

   In AD 732, two vast armies clashed in what is frequently termed one of the world’s most significant battles.  The fate of both Europe and all of Christendom hinged on this one conflict between a powerful Islamic army and one commanded by a famed Christian warrior.  Was this encounter, however, now called the Battle of Tours, really as consequential as we have been led to believe?

- Before the Battle  -

   On October 10, AD 732, Abd al-Rahman, also known as Abu Said Abdul Rahman ibn Abdullah ibn Bishr ibn Al Sarem Al 'Aki Al Ghafiqi, a powerful Muslim ruler, led his mighty Saracen army against a force of Frankish troops.  For years now, a divided Europe had fallen prey to militant Islamic armies.

    By 711, Muslims had crossed the Mediterranean and conquered all of Spain. Realising his peril, Charles, the most powerful of the Franks, urgently began training a ‘standing army’.  At that time, European armies were made up of ordinary citizens, called up only in times of war. Charles, however, realised that the only way he could stop the unstoppable Islamic forces was with a well-trained, disciplined army. It was this army, 75,000 strong, that now faced a Muslim force of, reportedly, as many as 400,000 ferocious horsemen.

- The Battle of Tours  -

    As the armies met, Charles’ strategy soon began to pay off.  Although attacked by wave after wave of Saracens, his heavily outnumbered force held firm.  A writer from the time put it this way: “...the men of the North seemed like a sea that cannot be moved.  Firmly they stood, one close to another, forming as it were a bulwark of ice; and with great blows of their swords they hewed down the Arabs.”  

    The day was soon lost for Abd al-Rahman. As Charles sent in his scouts to raid the Saracen camp, the Arab force dissolved. Thousands were cut down but many more fled.  Abd al-Rahman was himself slain in this time of chaos. A mere one thousand five hundred Franks lost their lives. In honour of his victory, Charles was given the surname “Martel”, meaning “the Hammer”.  Abd al-Rahman’s hopes of an Islamic Europe had been decisively dashed.

- Significance in Doubt -

   In recent years, some modern historians have challenged not only the minute details of the conflict but the significance of the battle itself.  

    The general consensus is that, if the Muslims had conquered Europe, Christianity (as we know it today) may not have survived. As it is, Charles defeated the Muslims and Christianity has gone on to become the world’s largest religion and has had a massive impact on ethical, social and general development around the world.  

    A number of modern historians suggest, however, that there are several reasons to doubt this consensus. One of the most popular is that Abd al-Rahman’s Muslim force could have realistically been a mere raiding party. The fact that his army was made up of mostly horsemen seems to support this logic.

    Many people also point out that it would be unrealistic to suppose that a society as staunchly Christian as Europe would submit to Islamic rule for any amount of time without rising up to overthrow their conquerors.  In other words, as long as there were Christians in Europe, there would be no peace for their Islamic oppressors.

- Conclusion   -

   on the other hand, many historians claim that this belief is simply a form of politicised historical revisionism.  they point out that even the invasion of spain had begun with sea raids. as soon as these “raiders” discovered that they could conquer the country, they did.  it is quite obvious, considering the speed of the muslim expanse, that they had all of europe (if not the world) in their sights. it is also reasonable to suppose that they would not have engaged in a full-fledged battle against charles martel unless their aim was to crush him entirely.  the arab horsemen would have been lighter and faster and would have been fully capable of escape had that been their wish.,     furthermore, it is interesting to note that both turkey and palestine had once been some of the most christianised parts of the world - both central parts of the christian byzantine empire - until conquered by muslim forces in 1453 and 1517 respectively.  today, turkey is one of the most islamic countries in the world. the same went for palestine, until the recent establishment of the nation of israel in 1948. it seems most likely that the ultimate goal of the muslim force was to conquer france and expand their caliphate into all of europe.,    while the battle of tours did not put an absolute end to islamic conquests in europe, it was certainly the single most influential conflict of its time.  with abd al-rahman out of the picture, charles could look to further his military and economic strength. certainly, if he had not been able to stem the muslim advance - or, worse, he had fallen during combat - gaul, if not all of europe, would have become part of the new islamic caliphate.  we have much to thank charles the hammer, preserver of europe, for..

Researched and Written By

Cody Mitchell

1. Bunting, Tony. “Battle of Tours.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 28 Mar. 2017, www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Tours-732 .

2. Bulfinch, Thomas, and H.G. Wells. “The Battle of Tours - 732 AD.” Classic History, 7 Aug. 2015, www.classichistory.net/archives/battle-of-tours .

3. “Battle of Tours.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/battle-of-tours .

4. “Battle of Tours (732 A.D.).” Robert Anderson (1805-1871), www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/tours.html .

5. “Charles Martel Stops Muslim Expansion at the Battle of Tours” (732). (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.historyofinformation.com/expanded.php?id=1971

6. “This Day in History: October 10th- The Battle That Shaped History.” (2014, October 07). Retrieved from http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2014/10/day-history-october-10th-battle-shaped-history/

Summary :    A significant battle fought between Islamic forces under Abd al-Rahman and Christian forces under Charles Martel

Date :     October 10, AD 732

Contestants :   The Islamic Caliphate had been expanding for decades now and Muslim forces under Abd al-Rahman were looking to conquer Gaul (modern day France).  Charles Martel, de facto King of the Franks, had been training a 'standing' army with which he met the Arab force.

Location :    B etween Tours and Poitiers, West-Central France

Fought in A.D. 732, the Battle of Tours (also called the Battle of Poitiers), fought between Abd al-Rahman and Charles Martel, was among the most decisive events in European history.

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Photo Credit: With a Christian cross prominently displayed at left, Charles Martel’s Frankish forces beat back Muslim invaders at Tours in Charles Steuben’s 19th-century painting.

Charles The Hammer At Tours

An army of fast-moving Muslim raiders collided with a phalanx of Frankish heavy infantry under Charles “the Hammer” Martel at Tours in ad 732. It would be the highwater mark of the Islamic tide in Europe.

This article appears in: December 2010

By William E. Welsh

In the late spring of ad 732, an 80,000-man-strong Muslim army spilled northward through gaps in the western Pyrenees onto the verdant, gently rolling landscape of Gascony. The invaders crossed the 3,800-foot Roncesvalles Pass, shedding extra layers of clothing they had worn as they passed through the snow-covered mountains. As they descended, the air became pleasantly warm in the Duchy of Aquitaine and they were greeted by heavy rains in sharp contrast to the desert air with which they were more familiar.

The supremely confident warriors were looking to slake their thirst for riches by looting the Christian abbeys, churches, and towns in the area. Although by rights one-fifth of the spoils belonged to the Umayyad caliph in Damascus, each man in the ranks was also assured some portion of the plunder. The invading army, led by Abd er-Rahman, governor of al-Andalus, the Muslim-controlled territory on the Iberian Peninsula, reflected the sheer breadth of appeal of the Prophet Muhammad and his teachings. Within its ranks were Arab professional soldiers, Persian warriors, Turkish adventurers, and Berber tribesman. The mounted invaders, armed with lances and shields, wore chain mail beneath loose-fitting, brightly colored robes. They protected their heads with egg-shaped helmets, while the poorer Berbers, toting spears and swords but lacking armor, wore turbans and drab robes.

Abd er-Rahman and his army intended to subjugate and punish Aquitaine’s ruler, Prince Eudes, who had resisted the steady encroachments into Aquitaine by the governor and his Muslim minions for the past several years. The vacuum left by the dissolution of the Western Roman Empire had set the stage for the dramatic spread of Islam by armed conquest across the shores of North Africa in the 7th century. Muslim warriors of the Umayyad caliphate of Damascus, the second of four Islamic caliphates established after Muhammad’s death, reached the shores of the Atlantic in ad 710. Seeking more plunder for the caliph (and for themselves), the invaders cast their eyes on the Iberian Peninsula to the north.

At the time, the Visigoths controlled the Iberian Peninsula, having settled there in the 5th Century. They were ruled by King Roderic, whose sovereignty was disputed by rival factions in Septimania, a former province of Rome just northeast of the Pyrenees. Taking advantage of the discord, the Umayyad governor of North Africa, Musa ibn Nusair, assembled an invasion army bound for Iberia. Lacking their own transport, the Muslims found a willing Byzantine official who bore a grudge against Roderic. Because of the lack of transport and the attendant difficulties of supporting an amphibious invasion, Damascus granted permission for only a small expedition consisting of 400 men. The subsequent success of the expedition, including the sack of Algeciras, and the knowledge that Roderic was tied down in a protracted conflict with Basque tribesmen in northern Iberia, fed the Muslim thirst for even larger riches.

The following year Musa entrusted a second invasion, this time comprising 7,000 Berbers and Arabs, whom the Europeans called Saracens, to Berber leader Tarik ibn Ziyad. Roderic perished fighting the Muslim invaders, and Musa crossed to Iberia to administer the conquered areas. By 712, the Muslims had subjugated most of the population of Iberia, with the exception of the Asturias and the Basques. Driven by their unquenchable thirst for plunder, the Umayyads began raiding north of the Pyrenees into the sprawling Duchy of Aquitaine. To the northeast lay Septimania, the last bastion of the Visigoths. At the time, Aquitaine was nominally ruled by the Merovingian Franks.

Duke Eudes, the ruler of Aquitaine, had taken advantage of civil strife in the Frankish kingdom following the death of the Frankish leader, Pepin of Herstal, to expand his control of the borders of Aquitaine and bestow upon himself the title of prince, a self-anointing act that did not sit well with the Franks. Pepin had ruled the Frankish kingdom from 679 until his death in 714. Before dying, Pepin had designated his young grandson, Theobald, as his heir. Fearing that Pepin’s illegitimate son, Charles, would seize power, Pepin’s wife had Charles imprisoned. He escaped and fought a series of battles over the next several years, during which time he consolidated his power and crushed his opponents in the tripartite Frankish kingdom of Austrasia, Neustrasia, and Burgundy, while also reasserting his control over key dependencies such as Aquitaine. By 723, Charles was firmly in control of the Frankish kingdom and serving as mayor of the palace, as his father had done before him. He spent the next year fighting the Saxons and Bavarians on Austrasia’s eastern flank.

The Umayyads began launching large-scale raids north of the Pyrenees in 717, and two years later they captured the port of Narbonne in Septimania, transforming it into an Islamic city. The successful capture of Narbonne led to even greater schemes of conquest. In 721, the al-Andalus governor at the time, al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, led a large force bent on conquering all or part of Aquitaine by marching on the key city of Toulouse. The confident Muslims brought with them a long train of siege weapons and a large number of camp followers. After crossing the eastern Pyrenees in the springtime, the invaders laid siege to Toulouse. Meanwhile, Eudes set about gathering a relief force composed of Gascons, Basques, and Visigoths.

Eudes attacked the Muslim forces around Toulouse on June 9, scattering and overrunning them as they sought to withdraw. It was a decisive victory, one that greatly enhanced his prestige. The Muslims, however, were by no means through with their military efforts in the region. Four years later they closed their grip on Septimania by capturing the fortresses of Carcassonne and Nimes and driving the Visigoths from their last holdings. These would serve as bases for far-ranging Muslim raids into Burgundy.

Eudes, who found himself in the unenviable position of being sandwiched between the Muslims in al-Andalus and the resurgent Frankish kingdom under Charles, entered into an alliance in 729 with Munusa, the rebel governor of Cerdagne, a district in the eastern Pyrenees, to augment his army in future conflicts. To parry the growing strength of the Franks, Eudes also began meddling in Frankish political affairs.

As part of an ongoing attempt to subjugate the lands bordering the Pyrenees, Abd er-Rahman invaded Cerdagne and forcibly removed Munusa as a threat. Believing it was imperative to punish Eudes for daring to resist Muslim encroachments, er-Rahman began assembling an army in the western Pyrenees at Pamplona to remove Eudes as a threat once and for all. Professional soldiers flooded into the encampment from throughout al-Andalus and from North Africa, giving er-Rahman a sizable army. At the same time, Charles shifted his attention from the Frankish kingdom’s eastern frontier to its western one, launching two punitive raids in 731 on northern Aquitaine and ultimately sacking Bourges.

Keenly aware of the fate that had befallen al-Samh before the gates of Toulouse, er-Rahman purposely chose not to follow the same invasion path through the eastern Pyrenees. Instead, the high Roncesvalles Pass offered the Muslims a more direct route to Bordeaux, which Eudes was bound to defend. When they reached level ground, the Muslims divided into two columns. The main column, led by er-Rahman, took an inland route, stopping north of Aire to burn the abbey of Saint-Sever-de-Rustan. Meanwhile, a smaller column took a coastal route of march, stopping to pillage Bayonne and Dax before resuming its march toward Bordeaux. As the two columns advanced, they met no resistance. Vastly outnumbered, the small garrisons in Gascony had fled north to the Garonne River, where they planned to join Eudes’s main army to defend Bordeaux.

Eudes was presented with two choices for doing battle with the Muslims, both of which favored the invaders. If he fell back on Bordeaux, he risked being trapped on the Medoc peninsula and defeated outside the city walls. Yet if he gave battle in the open countryside in the Garonne valley, his army was likely to be overwhelmed by er-Rahman’s much larger force. Eudes opted for the latter choice, and in early June he suffered a decisive defeat along the banks of the Garonne. The remnants of his army retreated northward to the Dordogne River, a tributary of the Garonne, leaving Bordeaux uncovered. The Muslims immediately plundered Bordeaux, extracting from the city a large treasure of booty that included countless gold objects richly decorated with gems and pearls. They left the town in smoldering ruins when they departed in late June.

While Eudes raised new forces from northern Aquitaine for another clash with the Muslims, er-Rahman rode east along the southern bank of the Garonne until he reached the town of Agen, midway between Bordeaux and Toulouse. There, he crossed the wide river, defeated the town’s small garrison, and added still more plunder to his growing baggage train. Meanwhile, smaller raiding parties gathered additional booty from nearby towns and churches.

The Muslim leader turned his army back west to do battle once again with Eudes. His scouts found Eudes’s army in a defensive position on the north side of the Dordogne, defending a bridge on the Roman road to Saintes. After receiving this information, er-Rahman sent one wing of his army on a wide flanking march upstream of the Franks, which brought his horsemen in on their flank. A major battle occurred at the junction of the Garonne and Dordogne Rivers, and Eudes once again was soundly defeated. No longer able to offer substantial resistance to the advancing Muslims, Eudes rode north with his retainers into the heart of the Frankish kingdom to petition Charles for aid in defending Aquitaine.

News of the Muslim victories in Aquitaine reached Charles while he was in the midst of a campaign against the Bavarians along the Danube River. With Muslim forces operating deep in Aquitaine and Burgundy, Charles rode first to Reims and then on to Paris. In a no doubt uncomfortable meeting with Eudes, he agreed to help—provided that Eudes pledge his allegiance to Charles and agree to maintain Aquitaine as a Frankish dependence rather than an independent principality. After the meeting, Charles issued a summons calling upon all able-bodied men throughout the kingdom to defend the realm. The army assembled at Paris and marched to Orleans and Tours to protect wealthy church properties that were likely targets of marauding Muslims. Charles dispatched advance forces to guard the Basilica of St. Martin, which lay outside the city’s protective walls.

Tours itself was in no immediate danger. The Muslims spent the next three months encamped in central Aquitaine. During that time, they plundered the surrounding cities of Saintes, Perigueux, and Angouleme. In a systematic manner, er-Rahman’s troops stole treasure and artifacts from church properties and dismantled and burned fortifications to remove any local resistance to their authority. Once they had secured all the treasure they believed was to be had in central Aquitaine, the invaders broke camp at Saintes and marched northward via the Roman road toward Poitiers.

Poitiers, a key crossroads in northern Aquitaine on the Clain River, was situated about 60 miles south of the Neustrian border. The second largest town in Aquitaine after Toulouse, Poitiers was surrounded by an inner wall built during Roman times and an outer wall constructed by the Visigoths. Scattered around the city and its outskirts were a number of important religious structures, including the abbey and church of Saint Hilaire and the funerary basilica of Saint-Radegonde. Saint Hilaire, which lay beyond the protection of the outer wall south of the city, was adorned with gold mosaic and undoubtedly would be a prime target for the treasure-seeking Muslim raiders.

A network of tributaries of the Loire River was located east of Poitiers. Among these tributaries, which had their headwaters on the northwestern slope of the Massif Central, were the Vienne, Cher, and Indre Rivers. On their way to join the Loire, the tributaries flowed through a landscape that consisted primarily of upland pastures and valleys and ridges blanketed by thick forests.

As expected, the Muslims attacked the lightly defended Saint Hilaire in mid-September and carried off its religious treasures. At that point, er-Rahman decided to forego a siege of the walled city in favor of sacking Saint-Martin, outside Tours. The Muslims had learned from locals that Saint-Martin contained even greater wealth, and despite the risk inherent in invading another dominion of the Frankish kingdom, they continued north in late September marching past the fortifications of Poitiers. While the largest column led by er-Rahman marched along the Roman road, smaller columns advanced toward the Loire River on less direct routes to the left and right of the main column.

As they marched north along the Roman Road with the Clain River, a tributary of the Vienne, to their left, the Muslims passed by the ruins of a Roman settlement at Vieux-Poitiers that included an amphitheater with a tower that afforded a bird’s-eye view of the surrounding farmland. When er-Rahman reached the village of Cenon on the Vienne River, he paused for a time before crossing. Scouts were sent up and down the river and across to the north bank to make sure Frankish forces were not in the vicinity. After it was determined that a safe passage could be made, the main body of the Muslim army crossed to the north bank.

From Cenon, er-Rahman marched north to the village of Port-de-Piles, where he halted his forces on the south bank of the Creuse River, another tributary of the Vienne. In an effort to reconnoiter the road ahead, er-Rahman sent his vanguard across the Creuse. Meanwhile, the Muslim column operating east of the main body ran headlong into a group of Christian pilgrims bound for Rome. They promptly attacked and robbed the pilgrims, leaving a number of the unlucky travelers dead by the roadside.

Advancing cautiously northward in early October, the lead elements of the main Muslim body ran into Frankish positions guarding Tours. Bloody skirmishes foreshadowed a larger battle to come. In a clash with the Franks north of the Creuse River, the Muslim vanguard suffered a serious reverse and was forced to fall back. In another clash farther west, the Franks overran a Muslim encampment near the village of Loudun, forcing the invaders to fall back to a safer position.

In response to these setbacks, er-Rahman ordered his vanguard to fall back behind the Creuse. Still feeling exposed, he withdrew the main body of the Muslim army across the Vienne. In mid-October, the Muslims began constructing a fortified camp on high ground between the Vienne and Clain Rivers just north of marshland along a stream that emptied into the Clain. The military encampment, known as a khandaq, was protected on all sides by ditches and guarded around the clock. Just beyond the ditches were thick woods. A gap in the woods to the west led toward the Roman road, while a gap to the northeast led to two small villages in the Vienne River valley. As the Muslims fell back, Charles ordered his army to advance to the Vienne and halt opposite Cenon.

While the Muslims built their khandaq, the Franks crossed the Vienne and began a cautious advance southward along the Roman road. The Franks made camp at the Roman ruins located on the western side of the old road. They used the tower that was part of the Roman amphitheater as an observation post. For the better part of a week, the two armies warily observed each other, neither willing to launch an attack.

On Saturday, October 25, Charles ordered his troops to form a defensive line astride the Roman road just south of the ruins at Vieux-Poitiers on a narrow tract of cleared land. The position allowed Charles to anchor both flanks in dense woods. By securing his flanks, the Frankish commander ensured that the Muslim cavalry would not be able to ride around his army and fall on his main line from the rear.

The Frankish army, numbering about 30,000 men, was divided into four divisions. It consisted of Frankish infantry, both mounted and on foot, and a body of irregular cavalry composed of mounted bands of Bretons, Basques, and Gascons that was commanded by Eudes. Rather than pit his less-agile cavalry against the well-trained Muslim horsemen, Charles ordered the mounted infantry to dismount and take their place in one of three divisions that would form a formidable phalanx to await the Muslim attack. The soldiers in the main line of battle stood shoulder to shoulder in order to leave no gap through which their line might be breached. The fourth division, under Eudes, formed a rear guard that was stationed behind the main line and had orders to respond to any Muslim cavalry that might be clever enough to find a way around or through the front line.

Just after sunrise, the Muslim army marched west until it reached the Roman road. It then formed for battle just beyond the village of Moussais-le-Bataille. In keeping with Muslim tradition, the army was organized into five divisions consisting of a center, two wings, a vanguard, and rear guard. The rear guard did not march into battle, but stayed behind to protect the khandaq. Muslim tactics were to overwhelm their adversaries by moving swiftly across open ground, outflanking the enemy’s position, and disrupting the opposing forces so that the enemy could be ridden down and slaughtered in small groups.

The Franks fighting under Charles would use tactics that completely negated the Muslim advantage in numbers and speed. The Frankish tactics closely resembled those of the Romans. The Franks used heavy spears and short swords as their main weapons. On the whole, these weapons were heavier than those used by the mounted Muslim forces. The Franks were clad in chain-mail shirts or leather jerkins reinforced with metal scales. Their primary protection in battle was an impressive round, wooden shield covered in leather that was three feet in diameter. The concave shield, with an iron boss in the center, protected the soldiers from their necks to their thighs. It was used not only for protection against incoming projectiles or slashing swords, but also as an offensive weapon to drive back and batter the enemy in close-quarters combat. To protect their heads, the Frankish infantry wore conical hats angled to deflect blows to the head, whether delivered from an enemy on foot or on horseback.

The élan that the Frankish heavy infantry exhibited in battle was derived from the fact that they were free men serving to protect their homeland against marauding invaders. In preparation for the Muslim attack, the Franks presented an unbroken wall of shields. They rested their spears on the ground to impale any Muslim horsemen who might be foolish enough to charge them directly.

The battle began when the Muslims rode at the Franks and began hurling javelins or firing arrows into their ranks at close range. Some brave men rode close enough to slash at the Franks with their swords, a dangerous proposition considering that the Franks was armed with multiple weapons and well protected by their armor, shields, and helmets. The Muslims tried to inflict sufficient casualties to open a gap in the enemy line or, failing that, to entice the Franks to advance to the attack and then work their way inside their lines. At no time did the Muslims try to break the enemy phalanx. It was simply impossible for light cavalry to overrun a strong line of heavy infantry. “The Muslim horsemen dashed fierce and frequent forward against the battalions of the Franks, who resisted manfully, and many fell dead on either side,” wrote an anonymous Muslim chronicler.

The Franks exhibited discipline and control while under attack by a numerically superior foe. “The men of the north stood motionless as a wall,” wrote al-Andalusian chronicler Isidorus Pacensis. “They were like a belt of ice frozen together, and not to be dissolved, as they slew the Arab with sword. The Austrasians, vast of limb, and iron of hand, hewed bravely in the thick of the fight.” When the Muslims came close to their line, the Franks did their best to thrust their spears into the enemy horses and stab and slash at the riders with their swords. They also employed their shields to tear or puncture the enemy mounts. Large numbers of Muslim cavalry were unhorsed near the Frankish line and then either dispatched with swords or trampled as the Franks advanced a short distance to drive back the enemy. Incensed by the constant Muslim looting of their homeland, particularly their churches, the Franks did not take any prisoners.

For most of the day, the fight was an even one, but as the battle wore on into the afternoon the Muslims had yet to punch through the solid Frankish phalanx. As a result of hard fighting, Muslim casualties were particularly heavy. Nevertheless, Charles was concerned about the strength of his line in the agonizing hours that the sun arced slowly across the sky. Late in the day he made a bold decision to switch to the offensive. Taking advantage of the Aquitainians’ superior local knowledge of geography, he ordered Eudes to take his mounted division on a wide flanking march and fall on the enemy’s fortified camp.

Having completed their flank march, Eudes’s men advanced on the Muslim camp from the northeast just before sunset through a passage in the forested country east of the Vienne. The Muslim rear guard detected the enemy on its flank and fell back to protect the khandaq, the riders dismounting and filing into the surrounding ditches. Armed with spears and swords, the defenders were backed by archers with simple bows who fired on the Franks as they advanced.

Eudes’s attack on the Muslim khandaq essentially spelled the end of the main battle. When Muslim front-line forces learned that their camp was under full-scale attack, one squadron of cavalry after another peeled off and rode back toward the encampment. The Muslims were determined to protect the hard-fought treasures amassed during their raids on Aquitaine.

Some of Eudes’s men attacked the khandaq on foot, while others remained mounted in order to hurl their spears and javelins over the defensive barriers. In hand-to-hand combat in the ditches surrounding the encampment, the Franks gained the upper hand in a matter of minutes. As the resistance in front of him crumbled on his front, Charles brushed aside the remaining Muslims and marched his men in good order toward the enemy camp as darkness began to swallow up the last light of day on the bloody hilltop.

“Charles boldly drew up his battle line against them and the warriors rushed in against them,” wrote an observer, the Continuator of Fredegar. “With Christ’s help, he overturned their tents, and hastened to battle to grind them small in slaughter.” While directing the defense of the Muslim camp, er-Rahman was killed by a javelin thrown with expert marksmanship by one of the mounted Gascons or Bretons riding with Eudes.

Although Charles’s well-disciplined army killed large numbers of the Muslims, they failed to capture the fortified camp by nightfall. Satisfied with the day’s achievements, Charles ordered his men to quit the field and await the morning’s developments. Meanwhile, learning that er-Rahman had fallen, the Muslims prepared to withdraw southward under the cover of darkness. To hasten their escape, the Muslim survivors made the heartbreaking decision to abandon the baggage train containing their spoils of war. In a skilled move that reflected their military professionalism, the Muslims purposely left their tents standing to deceive the Franks.

On Sunday, the Franks formed up with the intent of resuming the battle. After sending forward several small groups to probe the Muslim defenses, Charles learned that the bulk of the Muslim army had fled during the night, leaving behind their prisoners and plunder so that neither would impede their flight. The rank and file of the Frankish army were spellbound by the treasure they found in the abandoned khandaq. They were anxious to divide the spoils and return to their homes and families with a portion of the recovered loot.

Charles, who was acutely in tune with the mood of his troops, was reluctant to order a pursuit of the Muslims with an unwilling body of men. Furthermore, he feared that the Franks might become strung out during the pursuit, allowing the Muslims to turn on their pursuers and maul them severely. Last but not least, Charles wanted the Muslims to remain a serious threat to the security of Aquitaine, forcing Eudes to focus his political and military efforts against the Muslims rather than the Franks.

Casualties for the battle are difficult to gauge. Muslim accounts state that the Franks lost 1,500 men, but those numbers seem light given that the battle lasted most of the day. In all probability, the Franks lost several thousand men. Muslim casualties were significantly greater than those of the Franks, with the Muslims losing an estimated 10,000 men in the day-long battle.

Charles made a wise decision not to follow the retreating Muslims. The Muslim retreat was by no means the rout of a panicked army. Because of its professional nature, the army’s withdrawal was conducted in a cohesive fashion, with some elements retreating through Aquitaine and others through Burgundy to the safety of al-Andalus and Septimania. The main army turned west toward Burgundy, where it was assisted in its withdrawal by Muslim raiding parties operating deep in the Rhone Valley. Those elements operating west of the Muslim main army slipped across the Dordogne and Garonne Rivers to Gascony and then on to al-Andalus.

After the battle, Charles withdrew through Neustria with his army, but not before replacing the bishops of Tours and Poitiers, both of whom had shown questionable allegiance to him. Eudes, who still had a sizable command despite many months of hard campaigning, marched south, battling the Muslim raiders remaining in Aquitaine as he went.

The battle marked the highwater mark of the Islamic tide that had swept into Western Europe during the Middle Ages. By turning back the Muslims at Tours, the Franks broke the string of Muslim conquests that had spread like a terrible storm through the Iberian Peninsula and beyond. Charles was given the sobriquet Martel (the Hammer) by contemporary chroniclers for the way he had battered his enemies in battle. As the centuries passed, the saga of his defeat of the Muslims at Tours grew in importance until he was credited with nothing less than saving Western Christianity from Islamic subjugation. While there is some truth to the idea, the Muslim raids into Aquitaine and Burgundy were more of a nuisance than a true threat to Western Europe. Charles, for his part, considered rival nobles and hostile clergy in the Frankish dependencies far more of a threat to his rule than the Muslims.

Nevertheless, Charles’s victory at Tours had unanticipated benefits beyond stopping the Muslim advance at the Loire. The Franks enjoyed a significant boost in prestige throughout Europe, particularly in the eyes of the papacy, for having defeated the fearsome Muslims in a set-piece battle. That victory, in turn, laid the foundation for the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire two generations later by Charles’s grandson, Charlemagne. Either way, the Muslims’ halcyon days of raiding Western Europe at will were over.

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Battle of Tours 732 Charles Martel

What was the battle of tours.

The Battle of Tours was fought in 732 between a sizable Moorish invading force and a Frankish army under Charles Martel.

Martel was able to check the Moorish advance by routing the Muslim army at the Battle of Tours in 732.

The battle is considered highly significant in that it was crucial in stemming the tide of Muslim advance into north-eastern Europe after the Moors had successfully taken over southern Iberia.

Moors in various costumes

Modern historians believe that had Martel not defeated the Moorish army at Tours, Christianity may have lost a vital sphere of influence in Western Europe.

The outcome of the battle was the routing of the Muslim army and a resounding victory for Charles Martel, earning him the title of being the “Savior of Christianity”.

Prelude to the Battle of Tours

Muslim forces were defeated at the 721 Battle of Toulouse in their advance into northern Iberia. Duke Odo of Aquitaine secure this victory but by 732, another sizable Muslim army arrived to invade northern Iberia.

Odo attempted to stem the tide but was defeated and fled. He then turned to the Franks who were conventionally considered rivals of Aquitaine.

Charles Martel, the Frankish military general, agreed to come to Odo’s help if Odo agreed to bend the knee to Frankish authority. Between the threats of a complete Muslim invasion and the condition of submitting to the Franks, Odo chose the latter.

Charles Martel *Frankish Military General

Battle Tactics Battle of Tours

The key advantage that the invading Moorish army had over the Franks was its highly mobile cavalry.

Martel, on the other hand, had thousands of veteran troops. While the Frankish had no cavalry advantage over Muslims, Martel managed a crucial advantage by setting up his army at the ridge of a hill.

The Battle of Tours was also known as the Battle of Poitiers

The phalanx-like formation of his infantry, surrounded by trees on both sides, ensured that any charge from the Muslim cavalry would have little advantage against the Frankish infantry.

Being able to choose the terrain and the condition of the battle played the most central role in ensuring the subsequent Frankish victory in the battle.

Frankish Troops

Battle of Tours Battle

The Muslim army was led by Abd er Rehman. He had been able to victories in many previous battles using the might of Muslim heavy cavalry. At the Battle of Tours , the importance of Rehman’s cavalry was greatly diminished.

The Muslim army was positioned at the foot of the hill while the Frankish stood in a defensive formation atop the ridge of the hill. After waiting for six days, Ab der Rehman made the tactical mistake of making his troops charge uphill.

This negated the cavalry advantage the Muslims had. The Franks, on the other hand, stood in highly organized formations and withstood one cavalry charge after another from the Muslims.

Although the Muslim army was able to pierce through the Frankish formations, they couldn’t penetrate deep enough and sustained heavy losses at the hands of the Frankish infantry.

After the battle which had lasted nearly a day, rumors spread that the Franks had attacked the Muslim camp.

A sizable portion of the Muslim army immediately broke off to reach the camp. Muslim general, Ab der Rehman, was consequently killed while trying to restore order in his army.

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Reconquista

Battle of Tours

The Battle of Tours, also called the Battle of Poitiers and, was fought on 10 October 732, resulted in the victory for the Frankish and Aquitanian forces, led by Charles Martel, over the invading forces of the Umayyad Caliphate, led by Abdul Rahman Al-Ghafiqi, governor of al-Andalus. Details of the battle, including the number of combatants and its exact location, are unclear from the surviving sources. Most sources agree that the Umayyads had a larger force and suffered heavier casualties. Notably, the Frankish troops apparently fought without heavy cavalry. Al-Ghafiqi was killed in combat, and the Umayyad army withdrew after the battle. The battle helped lay the foundations of the Carolingian Empire and Frankish domination of western Europe for the next century.

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The Battle Of Tours Shaped Europe’s Destiny

• Luciano Anastasi
• March 5, 2023
• 18 Min Read

The Battle of Tours: Frankish Triumph against Muslim Invasion

In 732, the Frankish and Aquitanian forces, under the leadership of Charles Martel, clashed against the invading Muslim army of the Umayyad Caliphate in what became known as the Battle of Tours, or Poitiers, or the Highway of the Martyrs. The battle was a crucial moment in the Umayyad invasion of Gaul, and its outcome would shape the destiny of Western Europe for centuries to come.

The Franks and Aquitanians emerged victorious, dealing a decisive blow to the Umayyad forces. Although details of the battle remain unclear, it is believed that the Umayyads had a larger force and suffered more casualties. Notably, the Franks fought without heavy cavalry, a strategy that proved successful against the Umayyad’s cavalry-dependent tactics.

Uncertain Details of the Battle

The exact location and number of combatants in the Battle of Tours remain a mystery. Surviving sources offer little information beyond accounts of the victory. Most historians, however, agree that the battle was fought somewhere between the cities of Poitiers and Tours, in northern Aquitaine in western France, close to the border of the Frankish realm and the Duchy of Aquitaine under Odo the Great.

The Fall of Al-Ghafiqi and Muslim Retreat

During the battle, Abdul Rahman Al-Ghafiqi, the Umayyad governor of al-Andalus, led the Muslim army. However, Al-Ghafiqi was killed in combat, and the Umayyad forces withdrew after their defeat. The battle marked the beginning of the Frankish and Aquitanian domination of Western Europe, and its significance in shaping the destiny of the continent cannot be understated.

Battle of Tours Confirms Frankish Power

The Battle of Tours was an instrumental factor in curtailing the Islamization of Western Europe. Historians widely credit the Christian victory for halting the Umayyad invasion and for the establishment of Frankish power in the region. The battle laid the foundations for the Carolingian Empire, and Frankish domination of Western Europe would continue for the next century. The confirmation of their power marked a turning point in Western history, one that was influenced by the outcome of the Battle of Tours.

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Background: The Umayyad Conquests in Europe

In 711, the Umayyad invasion of the Christian Visigothic Kingdom of the Iberian Peninsula marked the beginning of two decades of Umayyad conquests in Europe. These military campaigns extended to the former provinces of the Roman Empire, in Gaul. The Umayyad forces made their way northward into Aquitaine and Burgundy, engaging in major battles at Bordeaux and a raid on Autun.

The Battle of Tours

The Battle of Tours is widely regarded as a pivotal event in Western European history. It is believed to have halted the northward advance of Umayyad forces and prevented the Islamization of Western Europe. The location of the battle is assumed to be where the rivers Clain and Vienne join between Tours and Poitiers. The number of troops in each army remains a subject of debate among historians.

The Strength of the Armies

According to the Mozarabic Chronicle of 754, the Franks, who were the forces of Austrasia, was greater in number and formidably armed. They killed the Umayyad king, Abd ar-Rahman. However, virtually all Western sources disagree, estimating the Franks at less than half the Muslim force. Some historians believe that the total Muslim force, counting the outlying raiding parties that rejoined the main body before Tours, outnumbered the Franks.

Drawing on non-contemporary Muslim sources, some historians describe the Umayyad forces as 80,000 strong or more. However, estimates of what the land was able to support and what Martel could have raised from his realm and supported during the campaign suggest that the strength of the armies may have been much smaller. Modern historians estimate the Umayyad forces at Tours at between 20,000–80,000, while others argue that estimates that the Umayyads had over fifty thousand troops (and the Franks even more) are logistically impossible.

Casualties and Aftermath

The losses sustained by each army during the battle remain unknown. Chroniclers later claimed that Charles Martel’s force lost about 1,500, while the Umayyad force suffered massive casualties of up to 375,000 men. However, these same casualty figures were recorded in the Liber Pontificalis for Duke Odo the Great’s victory at the Battle of Toulouse in 721. The Vita Pardulfi, written in the middle of the eighth century, reports that after the battle, Abd-al-Rahman’s forces burned and looted their way through the Limousin on their way back to Al-Andalus, which implies that they were not destroyed to the extent imagined on the Continuations of Fredegar.

Overall, the Battle of Tours remains a subject of debate among historians. While it is widely believed to have halted the northward advance of Umayyad forces and prevented the Islamization of Western Europe, the exact strength of the armies and the losses sustained remains uncertain. However, the battle’s significance in shaping the course of Western European history is undeniable.

Clash of Empires at Tours

The Saracen Army outside Paris, 730-32 AD

The Umayyads – A Mighty Empire

In the 8th century, the Umayyad dynasty was the first dynasty of Sunni caliphs that emerged after the reign of the Rashidun Caliphs. Under their leadership, the Umayyad Caliphate had become a vast empire and one of the world’s foremost military powers. They had successfully defeated and absorbed the Sasanian Empire and conquered much of the Byzantine Empire, including Syria, Armenia, and North Africa. The Umayyad armies had pushed east across Persia and west across North Africa through the late 7th century. At the time of the Battle of Tours, the Umayyad Caliphate was at the height of its power.

The Franks – The Emerging Empire

During Charles Martel’s tenure as commander-in-chief of the Franks, the Frankish realm had become the foremost military power in western Europe. This realm consisted of north and eastern France, most of western Germany, and the Low Countries. The Frankish realm had begun to progress towards becoming the first real imperial power in western Europe since the fall of Rome. Despite its power, it continued to struggle against external forces such as the Saxons, Frisians, and other opponents such as the Basque-Aquitanians led by Odo the Great (Old French: Eudes), Duke over Aquitaine, and Vasconia.

The Umayyad Conquest of Septimania

In 719, Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani led Umayyad troops to overrun Septimania, the southernmost region of the Frankish kingdom, as part of their expansion campaign up the Iberian Peninsula. Al-Samh established his capital in Narbonne, or Arbūna as the Moors called it and quickly subdued the unresisting cities of Alet, Béziers, Agde, Lodève, Maguelonne, and Nîmes that were still controlled by Visigothic counts.

The Battle of Toulouse

The Umayyad campaign into Aquitaine suffered a temporary setback at the Battle of Toulouse, where Duke Odo the Great broke the siege of Toulouse, taking Al-Samh ibn Malik’s forces by surprise. Despite this defeat, Moorish forces based in Narbonne continued to strike eastwards, reaching as far as Autun in Burgundy in 725.

The Alliance with Berber Commander Uthman ibn Naissa

Threatened by both the Umayyads in the south and the Franks in the north, Duke Odo allied himself with the Berber commander Uthman ibn Naissa, also known as Munuza, the deputy governor of what would later become Catalonia. To seal the alliance, Uthman married Odo’s daughter, and Moorish raids across the Pyrenees, Odo’s southern border, ceased. However, the next year, Uthman killed the bishop of Urgell Nambaudus and detached himself from his Arab masters in Cordova. Abdul Raḥman sent an expedition to crush his revolt, then directed his attention against Uthman’s ally Odo.

The Battle of the River Garonne

Odo collected his army at Bordeaux but was defeated, and the city was plundered. During the following Battle of the River Garonne, the Chronicle of 754 recorded that “God alone knows the number of the slain”. The Chronicle continued, stating that the invading forces “pierced through the mountains, trampled over rough and level ground, plundered far into the country of the Franks, and smote all with the sword, insomuch that when Eudo came to battle with them at the River Garonne, he fled.”

Odo’s Appeal to the Franks

Despite the heavy losses, Odo reorganized his troops and gave the Frankish leader notice of the impending danger to his realm. He appealed to the Franks for assistance, which Charles Martel granted only after Odo agreed to submit to Frankish authority. The Umayyads were not aware of the true strength of the Franks, and the Arab chronicles of the time show that awareness of the Franks as a growing military power only came after the Battle of Tours.

The Umayyad Advance toward the Loire

In 732, the Umayyad advance force was proceeding north towards the Loire River, having outpaced their supply train and a large part of their army. After easily destroying all resistance in that part of Gaul, the invading army split into several raiding parties while the main body advanced more slowly. The Umayyads delayed their campaign late in the year because the army needed to live off the land as they advanced, waiting until the wheat harvest was ready and stored.

The Battle of Tours Begins: Charles' Surprising Tactics

Charles Martel in the Battle of Tours

In the year 732, the Muslim forces of the Umayyad Caliphate were invading Gaul, with the intention of conquering it for Islam. However, they were caught off guard by a large force blocking their path to Tours. This force was led by Charles Martel, who had planned the attack with the hope of achieving total surprise. Charles decided not to attack immediately and instead fought in a defensive, phalanx-like formation.

The Skirmishes and the Wait for Reinforcements

For seven days, the two armies engaged in minor skirmishes. The Umayyads were waiting for their full strength to arrive. Despite being a proven commander, ‘Abd-al-Raḥmân had been outmaneuvered, and he had allowed Charles to concentrate his forces and pick the field of battle. Charles had used the trees and forest to screen his true numbers, making it impossible for the Umayyads to judge the size of his army. While many historians have believed that the Franks were outnumbered, some sources disagree with that assertion.

Charles’ Infantry, Battle Tactics, and Preparation

Charles’ infantry was his best hope for victory. They were seasoned and battle-hardened, having fought with him for years. In addition to his army, Charles had levies of militia that had not seen significant military use except for gathering food and harassing the Muslim army. He had been preparing for this confrontation since the Battle of Toulouse a decade earlier. Charles had made the best of a bad situation. Though allegedly outnumbered and without any heavy cavalry, he had tough, battle-hardened infantrymen who believed in him implicitly. Charles had taken out a large loan from the Pope to train and maintain a full-size army largely composed of professional infantry. Moreover, these infantrymen were heavily armed and dressed for the cold.

The Waiting Game and the Start of the Battle

Charles correctly assumed that ‘Abd-al-Raḥmân would feel compelled to give battle and move on to try to loot Tours. Abd-al-Raḥmân felt he had to sack Tours, which meant he had to go through the Frankish army on the hill in front of him. Charles’ decision to stay in the hills proved crucial, as it forced the Umayyad cavalry to charge uphill and through trees, diminishing their effectiveness. The battle eventually became a waiting game, with the Muslims not wanting to attack an army that could possibly be numerically superior and wanting the Franks to come out into the open. The Franks formed up a thick defensive formation and waited for them to charge uphill. Finally, on the seventh day, the battle began as Abd-al-Raḥmân did not want to wait any longer, with winter approaching.

Tactical Superiority of Cavalry vs Disciplined Infantry

In October 732, the Battle of Tours was fought between the Muslim forces of the Umayyad Caliphate led by Abdul Rahman Al-Ghafiqi and the Frankish and Aquitanian forces under the leadership of Charles Martel. Al-Ghafiqi, who trusted in the tactical superiority of his cavalry, had them charge repeatedly throughout the day. The disciplined Frankish soldiers withstood the assaults, although according to Arab sources, the Arab cavalry broke into the Frankish square several times. Despite this, the Franks did not break. The well-trained Frankish soldiers accomplished what was not thought possible at that time: infantry withstanding a heavy cavalry charge.

Contemporary Accounts of the Battle of Tours

According to the Mozarabic Chronicle of 754, the battle between the Muslim and Frankish forces took place after a week of tormenting each other with raids. The northern peoples remained as immobile as a wall, holding together like a glacier in the cold regions, and annihilated the Arabs with the sword. The people of Austrasia killed the king, Abd ar-Rahman, when they found him, striking him in the chest. Suddenly, within sight of the countless tents of the Arabs, the Franks despicably sheathed their swords postponing the fight until the next day since night had fallen during the battle. The Europeans rose from their own camp at dawn and saw the tents and canopies of the Arabs all arranged just as they had appeared the day before. Not knowing that they were empty and thinking that inside them there were Saracen forces ready for battle, they sent officers to reconnoiter and discovered that all the Ishmaelite troops had left. They had indeed fled silently by night in tight formation, returning to their own country.

Charles Martel’s Family Account of the Battle of Tours

For the fourth book of the Continuations of Fredegar’s Chronicle, Charles Martel’s family composed a stylized summary of the battle. According to this account, Prince Charles boldly drew up his battle lines against the Arabs, and with Christ’s help, he overturned their tents and hastened to battle to grind them small in slaughter. King Abdirama was killed, and he destroyed them, driving forth the army, he fought and won. Thus did the victor triumph over his enemies. This source details further that “he (Charles Martel) came down upon them like a great man of battle”. It goes on to say Charles “scattered them like the stubble”.

Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People

It is thought that Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Book V, Chapter XXIV) includes a reference to the Battle of Tours. According to the text, a dreadful plague of Saracens ravaged France with miserable slaughter, but not long after that country received the punishment due to their wickedness.

Charles Martel's Strategic Victory

Charles Martel fighting the Saracens at Tours-Poitiers in 732, Great Chronicles of France

The Battle of Tours-Poitiers in 732 was a turning point in European history. Charles Martel’s victory over the Umayyad army halted the Muslim advance into Europe, and the battle is considered one of the most important in world history. This analysis will examine the strategic and tactical decisions made by Charles Martel and ‘Abd-al-Raḥmân leading up to the battle, and how these decisions impacted the outcome.

‘Abd-al-Raḥmân’s Tactical Failures

Despite being a skilled general, ‘Abd-al-Raḥmân made two key mistakes before the battle. Firstly, he underestimated the strength of the Frankish army and did not assess their capabilities before invading. Secondly, he failed to scout the movements of the Frankish army, which led to the Muslim army being burdened with booty and suffering casualties before the battle began. Weaker opponents were not bypassed, which would have allowed the Muslim army to focus on the real power in Europe and partially pick the battlefield. While leaving enemies in your rear is generally unwise, the Mongols proved that bypassing weaker foes to eliminate the strongest first can be a devastatingly effective mode of invasion. ‘Abd-al-Raḥmân’s failure to adequately scout Gaul was disastrous and disadvantaged the Muslim army in the battle.

Both Western and Muslim histories agree that the battle was hard-fought, with the Umayyad heavy cavalry breaking into the square. The Franks, however, was in formation and still strongly resisting. Charles could not afford to stand idly by while Frankish territories were threatened, and his men were enraged by the utter devastation of the Aquitanians and wanted to fight. Charles probably made the best decision he could in waiting until his enemies least expected him to intervene and then marching by stealth to catch them by surprise at a battlefield of his choosing. It is probable that Charles and his own men did not realize the seriousness of the battle they had fought. Few battles are remembered over 1,000 years after they are fought, but the Battle of Tours-Poitiers is an exception. Charles Martel turned back a Muslim raid that had it been allowed to continue, might have conquered Gaul.

The Importance of Charles Martel’s Victory

Had Charles failed, there was no remaining force to protect Western Europe. The battle may justly be reckoned among those few battles of which a contrary event would have essentially varied the drama of the world in all its subsequent scenes. Strategically and tactically, Charles probably made the best decision he could in waiting until his enemies least expected him to intervene and then marching by stealth to catch them by surprise at a battlefield of his choosing. Roger Collins disputes interpretations of ever-expanding Umayyad forces, reminding their internal cohesion problems and the capture of Autun in 725 when the Burgundian stronghold was captured and sacked, then just abandoned by Anbasa’s raiding forces. Charles Martel’s victory was crucial in halting the Muslim advance into Europe and shaping the course of European history.

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Charles Martel’s victory at the Battle of Tours in 732 CE is one of the most significant events in the history of France. This momentous battle marked the end of the Umayyad conquest of Europe and secured the future of Christian Europe.

The Great Chronicles of France, a collection of historical texts that document the country’s history, provide valuable insights into Charles Martel’s life and his heroic deeds during the Battle of Tours. According to these chronicles, Charles Martel was a strong and charismatic leader who united the Frankish tribes against the invading Muslim army.

The chronicles also describe the battle in vivid detail, highlighting Charles Martel’s tactical genius and bravery. They recount how the Muslim army, led by the Emir Abd al-Rahman, outnumbered Charles Martel’s forces, but Charles managed to outsmart them by selecting a favorable terrain and using his cavalry to charge into the enemy’s flank.

The Great Chronicles of France also depict Charles Martel as a deeply religious man who saw his victory as a divine intervention. They note that he gave thanks to God for his triumph and vowed to use his power to defend Christianity and protect his people.

Wikipedia Contributors. (2023, February 19).  Battle of Tours . Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tours

• Collins, R. (2004). Visigothic Spain 409–711. Blackwell Publishing
• Fouracre, P. (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Routledge
• Gibbon, E. (1788). The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. W. Strahan & T. Cadell
• McKitterick, R. (1983). The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751–987. Longman
• Oman, C. (1924). A history of the art of war in the middle ages, Vol. 1. Methuen & Co

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• Theodoric the Great – Ostrogothic King
• England’s Dark Ages: A Time Of Change
• Medieval England

Battle of Tours (732 A.D.)

The Battle of Tours (often called the Battle of Poitiers, but not to be confused with the Battle of Poitiers, 1356) was fought on October 10, 732 between forces under the Frankish leader Charles Martel and a massive invading Islamic army led by Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman, near the city of Tours, France. During the battle, the Franks defeated the Islamic army and Emir Abd er Rahman was killed. This battle stopped the northward advance of Islam from the Iberian peninsula, and is considered by most historians to be of macrohistorical importance, in that it halted the Islamic conquests, and preserved Christianity as the controlling faith in Europe, during a period in which Islam was overrunning the remains of the old Roman and Persian Empires.

Franks, led by Charles Martel. Estimates of the Frankish army defending Gaul vary, but by most accounts were between 15,000 and 75,000. Losses according to St. Denis were about 1,500.

Muslims, between 60,000 and 400,000 cavalry, (most likely closer to the lower number) under Abd er Rahman; besides source differences, this army is difficult to estimate in size, since it was often fractured into raiding parties to carry out the pillaging and plundering of various richly cultured Frankish centers; however, the entire Muslim army was present at Tours by Arab accounts. During the six days he waited to begin the Battle, Abd er Rahman recalled all those columns raiding and pillaging, so that on the seventh day, when by both eastern and western accounts the Battle began, both armies were at full strength.

The Muslims in northern Spain had easily overrun Septimania, had set up a capital at Narbonne which they called Arbuna, giving its largely Arian inhabitants honorable terms, and quickly pacified the south and for some years threatened Frankish territories. Duke Odo of Aquitaine, also known as Eudes the Great, had decisively defeated a major invasion force in 721 at the Battle of Toulouse, but Arab raids continued, in 725 reaching as far as the city of Autun in Burgundy. Threatened by both the Arabs in the south and by the Franks in the north, in 730 Eudes allied himself with Uthman ibn Naissa, called "Munuza" by the Franks, the Berber emir in what would later become Catalonia. As a gage, Uthman was given Eudes's daughter Lampade in marriage to seal the alliance, and Arab raids across the Pyrenees, Eudes' southern border, ceased [1].

However, the next year, Uthman rebelled against the governor of al-Andalus, Abd er Rahman. Abd er Rahman quickly crushed the revolt, and next directed his attention against the traitor's former ally, Eudes. According to one unidentified Arab, "That army went through all places like a desolating storm." Duke Eudes (called King by some), collected his army at Bordeaux, but was defeated, and Bordeaux was plundered. The slaughter of Christians at the River Garonne was evidently horrific; Isidorus Pacensis commented that "solus Deus numerum morientium vel pereuntium recognoscat", 'God alone knows the number of the slain' (Chronicon). The Muslim horsemen then utterly devastated that portion of Gaul, their own histories saying the "faithful pierced through the mountains, tramples over rough and level ground, plunders far into the country of the Franks, and smites all with the sword, insomuch that when Eudo came to battle with them at the River Garonne, and fled." Eudes appealed to the Franks for assistance, which Charles Martel only granted after Eudes agreed to submit to Frankish authority.

In 732, the Arab advance force was proceeding north toward the River Loire having already outpaced their supply train and a large part of their army. Essentially, having easily destroyed all resistance in that part of Gaul, the invading army had split off into several raiding parties, simply looting and destroying, while the main body advanced more slowly. A military explanation for why Eudes was defeated so easily at Bordeaux, after having won 11 years earlier at Battle of Toulouse, was simple. At Toulouse, Eudes managed a basic surprise attack against an overconfident and unprepared foe, all of whose defensive works were aimed inward, while he attacked from the outside. The Arab cavalary never got a chance to mobilize and meet him in open battle. At Bordeaux, they did, and resulted in absolute devastation of Eudes army, almost all of whom were killed, with minimal losses to the Muslims. Eudes forces, like other European troops of that era, lacked stirrups, and therefore had no armoured cavalry. Virtually all of their troops were infantry. The Muslim heavy cavalry broke the Christian infantry in their first charge, and then simply slaughtered them at will as they broke and ran. The invading force then went on to devastate southern Gaul, preparing it for complete conquest. One of the major raiding parties advanced on Tours. A possible motive, according to the second continuator of Fredegar, was the riches of the Abbey of Saint Martin of Tours, the most prestigious and holiest shrine in western Europe at the time. Upon hearing this, Austrasia Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel, collected his army of an estimated 15-75,000 veterans, and marched south avoiding the old Roman roads hoping to take the Muslims by surprise.

Despite the great importance of this battle, its exact location remains unknown. Most historians assume that the two armies met each other where the rivers Clain and Vienne join between Tours and Poitiers.

Charles chose to begin the battle in a defensive, phalanx-like formation. According to the Arabian sources they drew up in a large square. Certainly, given the disparity between the armies, in that the Franks were mostly infantry, all without armour, against mounted and Arab armored or mailed horsemen, (the Berbers were less heavily protected) Charles Martel fought a brilliant defensive battle. In a place and time of his choosing, he met a far superior force, and defeated it.

For six days, the two armies watched each other with just minor skirmishes. The Muslims waited for their full strength to arrive, which it did, but they were still uneasy. No good general, and Abd er Rahman was one, liked to let his opponent pick the ground and conditions for battle -- and Martel had done both. Creasy says, and his theory is probably best, that the Muslims best strategic choice would have been to simply decline battle, depart with their loot, garrisoning the captured towns in southern Gaul, and return when they could force Martel to a battleground more to their liking, one that maximized the huge advantage they had of the first true "knights" mailed and amoured horsemen -- the Franks, without stirrups in wide use, had to depend on unarmoured foot soldiers. Martel gambled everything that Abd er Rahman would in the end feel compelled to battle, and to go on and loot Tours. Neither of them wanted to attack. The Franks were well dressed for the cold, and had the terrain advantage. The Arabs were not as prepared for the intense cold, but did not want to attack what they thought might be a numerically superior Frankish army. (most historians believe it was not) Essentially, the Arabs wanted the Franks to come out in the open, while the Franks, formed in a tightly packed defensive formation, wanted them to come uphill, into the trees, (negating at once some of the advantages of their cavalry). It became a waiting game, which Martel won. The fight commenced on the seventh day, as Abd er Rahman did not want to postpone the battle indefinitely.

Abd er Rahman trusted the tactical superiority of his cavalry, and had them charge repeatedly. This time the faith the Muslims had in their cavalry, armed with their long lances and swords which had brought them victory in previous battles, was not justified.

In one of the rare instances where medieval infantry stood up against cavalry charges, the disciplined Frankish soldiers withstood the assaults, though according to Arab sources, the Arab cavalry several times broke into the interior of the Frankish square. But despite this, Franks did not break, and it is probably best expressed by a translation of an Arab account of the battle from the Medieval Source Book: "And in the shock of the battle the men of the North seemed like North a sea that cannot be moved. Firmly they stood, one close to another, forming as it were a bulwark of ice; and with great blows of their swords they hewed down the Arabs. Drawn up in a band around their chief, the people of the Austrasians carried all before them. Their tireless hands drove their swords down to the breasts of the foe."

It might have been different, however, had the Muslim forces remained under control. According to Muslim accounts of the battle, in the midst of the fighting on the second day, scouts from the Franks began to raid the camp and supply train (including slaves and other plunder). A large portion of the army broke off and raced back to their camp to save their plunder. What appeared to be a retreat soon became one. While attempting to restore order to his men, who had managed to break into the defensive square, Abd er Rahman was surrounded by Franks and killed.

According to a Frankish source, the battle lasted one day. Frankish histories claim that when the rumor went through the Arab army that Frankish cavalry threatened the booty they had taken from Bordeaux, (Charles supposedly had sent scouts to cause chaos in the Muslim base camp, and free as many of the slaves as possible, hoping to draw off part of his foe, it succeeded beyond his wildest dreams), many of the Muslim Cavalry returned to their camp. This, to the rest of the Muslim army, appeared to be a full-scale retreat, and soon it was one. Both histories agree that while attempting to stop the retreat, Abd er Rahman became surrounded, which led to his death, and the Muslims returned to their camp.

The next day, when the Muslims did not renew the battle, the Franks feared an ambush. Only after extensive reconnaissance by Frankish soldiers of the Muslim camp was it discovered that the Muslims had retreated during the night.

The Arab army retreated south over the Pyrenees. Charles earned his nickname Martel, meaning hammer, in this battle. He continued to drive the Muslims from France in subsequent years. After Eudes died, who had been forced to acknowledge, albeit reservedly, the suzerainty of Charles in 719, his son wished independence. Though Charles wished to unite the duchy directly to himself and went there to elicit the proper homage of the Aquitainians, the nobility proclaimed Odo's son, Hunold, whose dukedom Charles recognised when the Arabs invaded Provence the next year. Hunold, who originally resisted acknowledging Charles as overlord, had no choice when the Muslims returned.

In 736 the Caliphate launched another massive invasion -- this time by sea. This naval Arab invasion was headed by Abdul Rahman's son. It landed in Narbonne in 736 and took Arles. Charles, the conflict with Hunold put aside, descended on the Proven�al strongholds of the Muslims. In 736, he retook Montfrin and Avignon, and Arles and Aix-en-Provence with the help of Liutprand, King of the Lombards. N�mes, Agde, and B�ziers, held by Isalm since 725, fell to him and their fortresses destroyed. He smashed a Muslim force at the River Berre, and prepared to meet their primary invasion force at Narbonne. He defeated a mighty host outside of that city, using for the first time, heavy cavalry of his own, which he used in coordination with his planax. He crushed the Muslim army, though outnumbered, but failed to take the city. Provence, however, he successfully rid of its foreign occupiers.

Notable about these campaigns was Charles' incorporation, for the first time, of heavy cavalry with stirrups to augment his phalanx. His ability to coordinate infantry and cavalry veterans was unequaled in that era and enabled him to face superior numbers of invaders, and decisively defeat them again and again. Some historians believe Narbonne in particular was as imporant a victory for Christian Europe as Tours. Charles was that rarest of commonities in the dark ages: a brilliant stategic general, who also was a tactical commander par excellance, able in the crush and heat of battle to adapt his plans to his foes forces and movement -- and amazingly, defeated them repeatedly, especially when, as at Tours, they were far superior in men and weaponry, and at Berre and Narbonne, when they were superior in numbers of brave fighting men. Charles had the last quality which defines genuine greatness in a military commander: he foresaw the dangers of his foes, and prepared for them with care; he used ground, time, place, and fierce loyalty of his troops to offset his foes superior weaponry and tactics; third, he adapted, again and again, to the enemy on the battlefield, cooly shifting to compensate for the foreseen and unforeseeable.

The importance of these campaigns, Tours and the later campaigns of 736-7 in putting an end to Muslim bases in Gaul, and any immediate ability to expand Islamic influence in Europe, cannot be overstated. Gibbons and his generation of historians, and the majority of modern experts agree with them that they were unquestionably decisive in world history. Despite these victories, the Arabs remained in control of Narbonne and Septimania for another 27 years, but could not expand further than that. The treaties reached earlier with the local population stood firm and were further consolidated in 734 when the governor of Narbonne, Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, concluded agreements with several towns on common defense arrangements against the encroachments of Charles Martel, who had systematically brought the south to heel as he extended his domains. He believed, and rightly so, that it was vital to keep the Muslims in Iberia, and not allow them a foothold in Gaul itself. Though he won the battle of Narbonne when the army there came out to meet him, Charles failed in his attempt to take Narbonne by siege in 737, when the city was jointly defended by its Muslim Arab and Christian Visigoth citizens. It was left to his son, Pippin the short, to force the city's surrender, in 759, and to drive the Arabs completely back to Iberia, and bring Narbonne into the Frankish Domains. His Grandson, Charlamagne, became the first Christian ruler to actually begin what would be called the Reconquista from Europe proper. In the east of the peninsula the Frankish emperors established the Marca Hispanica across the Pyrenees in part of what today is Catalonia, reconquering Girona in 785 and Barcelona in 801. This formed a buffer zone against Islam across the Pyrenees.

Tours in history

In Western history

Christian contemporaries, from Bede to Theophanes carefully recorded the battle and were keen to spell out what they saw as its implications. Later scholars, such as Edward Gibbon, would contend that had Martel fallen, the Moors would have easily conquered a divided Europe. Gibbon wrote that "A victorious line of march had been prolonged above a thousand miles from the rock of Gibraltar to the banks of the Loire; the repetition of an equal space would have carried the Saracens to the confines of Poland and the Highlands of Scotland; the Rhine is not more impassable than the Nile or Euphrates, and the Arabian fleet might have sailed without a naval combat into the mouth of the Thames. Perhaps the interpretation of the Qur'an would now be taught in the schools of Oxford, and her pulpits might demonstrate to a circumcised people the sanctity and truth of the revelation of Muhammed." Certainly, the Islamic invasions were an enormous danger during the window of 721 from Toulouse to 737 at the Arab defeat at Narbonne. But the window was closing. The unified Caliphate collapsed into civil war in 750 at the Battle of the Zab which left the Umayyad dynasty literally wiped out except for the Princes who escaped to Africa, and then Iberia, where they established the Umayyad Emirate in opposition to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad.

Both ancient, mid, and modern historians agree that Martel was the father of western heavy cavalry, and literally stole the technoloy from his slain foe! He had no trouble using his enemies tools against them, no pride stopped him from seizing any advantage he could in defending his faith, his father's home and homeland, and his people, from what he saw was a danger that would destroy them if not checked. His foresight in moving to strike first, to stop them short of his "front door," reminds one of Winston Churchill's famous statement, that "it is better to fight in your neighbors back yard, than have to defend your own front door." In 5 short years, from the Battle of Tours, to the Battle of Narbonne, he fathered western heavy cavalry, and used it in conjunction with his planax with devastating effect.

In the modern era, Norwich, the most widely read authority on the Eastern Roman Empire, says the Franks halting Muslim Expansion at Tours literally preserved Christianity as we know it. A more realistic viewpoint may be found in Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels by Antonio Santosuosso, Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Western Ontario, and considered an expert historian in the era in dispute in this article. It was published in 2004, and has quite an interesting modern expert opinion on Charles Martel, Tours, and the subsequent campaigns against Rahman's successor in 736-737. Santosuosso makes a compelling case that these defeats of invading Muslim Armies, were at least as important as Tours in their defense of western Christianity, and the preservation of those Christian monastaries and centers of learning which ultimately led Europe out of the dark ages. He also makes a compelling case that while Tours was unquestionably of macrohistorical importance, the later battles were at least equally so. Both invading forces defeated in those campaigns had come to set up permanent outposts for expansion, and there can be no doubt that these three defeats combined broke the back of European expansion by Islam while the Caliphate was still united. While some modern assessments of the battle's impact have backed away from the extreme of Gibbon's position, Gibbons's conjecture is supported by other historians such as Edward Shepard Creasy and William E. Watson. Most modern historians such as Norwich and Santosuosso generally support the concept of Tours as a macrohistorical event favoring western civilization and Christianity . Military writers such as Robert W. Martin, "The Battle of Tours is still felt today", also argue that Tours was such a turning point in favor of western civilization and Christianity that its aftereffect remains to this day.

In Arab history

Contemporary Arab historians and chroniclers are much more interested in the second Umayyad siege Arab defeat at Constantinople in 718, which ended in a disastrous defeat. After the first Arab siege of Constantinople (674-678) ended in complete failure, the Arabs Umayyad Caliphate attempted a second decisive attack on the city. An 80,000 strong army led by Maslama, the brother of Caliph Umar II, crossed the Bosporus from Anatolia to besiege Constantinople by land, while a massive fleet of Arab war galleys, estimated between 1,800 and 2,000, sailed into the Sea of Marmara to the south of the city. Fortunately for the Byzantines, the great chain kept the fleet from entering the inner harbor, and the Arab galleys were unable to sail up the Bosporus as they were under constant attack and harassment by the Greek fleet, who used Greek fire to level the differences in numbers. (The Byzantine fleet was less than a third of the Arab, but Greek fire swiftly evened the numbers). Emperor Leo III was able to use the famed Walls of Constantinople to his advantage and the Arab army was unable to breach them. (it must be noted that Bulgar forces had come to the aid of the Byzantines, and constantly harassed the Muslim army, and definitely disrupted resupply to the point that much of the army was close to starvation by the time the siege was abandoned. Some Muslim historians have argued that had the Caliph recalled his armies from Europe to aid in the siege, the city might have been taken by land, despite the legendary walls - such a recall would have doubled the army laying siege, allowed a full attack while still beating off Bulgar forces attempting to end the siege by harassing the army from outside while the defenders held the walls.

Some contemporary historians argue that had the Arabs actually wished to conquer Europe they could easily have done so. Essentially these historians argue that the Arabs were not interested enough to mount a major invasion, because Northern Europe at that time was considered to be a socially, culturally and economically backward area with little to interest any invaders. Some western scholars, such as Bernard Lewis, agree with this stance, though they are in a minority.

This is also disputed by Arab histories of the period circa 722-850 which mentioned the Franks more than any other Christian people save the Byzantines, (The Arabian chronicles were compiled and translated into Spanish by Jos� Antonio Conde, in his "Historia de la Dominaci�n de los �rabes en Espa�a", published at Madrid in 1820, and in dealing specifically with this period, the Arab chronicles discuss the Franks as one of two non-Muslim Powers then concerning the Caliphate). Further, this is disputed by the records of the Islamic raids into India and other non-Muslim states for loot and converts. Given the great wealth in Christian shrines such as the one at Tours, Islamic expansion into that area would have been likely had it not been sharply defeated in 732, 736, and 737 by Martel, and internal strife in the Islamic world prevented later efforts. Other relevant evidence of the importance of this battle lies in Islamic expansion into all other regions of the old Roman Empire -- except for Europe, and what was retained by Byzantium, the Caliphate took all of the old Roman and Persian Empires. It is not likely Gaul would have been spared save by the campaigns by, and the loyalty of, Charles Martel's veteran Frankish Army. Finally, it ignores that 4 separate Emirs of al-Andalus, over a 25 year period used a Fatwa from the Caliph to levy troops from all provinces of Africa, Syria, and even Turkomens who were beginning conversion, to raise 4 huge invading armies, well supplied and equipped, with the intention of permanent expansion across the Pyrenees into Europe. No such later attempts however were made as conflict between the Umayyad Emirate of Iberia and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad prevented a unified assault on Europe.

Given the importance Arab histories of the time placed on the death of Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman and the defeat in Gaul, and the subsequent defeat and destruction of Muslim bases in what is now France, it seems reasonably certain that this battle did have macrohistorical importance in stopping westward Islamic expansion. Arab histories written during that period and for the next seven centuries make clear that Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman's defeat and death was regarded, and most scholars believe, as a catastrophe of major proportions. Their own words record it best: (translated from Arabic) "This deadly defeat of the Moslems, and the loss of the great leader and good cavalier, Abderrahman, took place in the hundred and fifteenth year." (Islamic Calendar) This, from the portion of the history of the Umayyad Caliphate, and the great Arab period of expansion, also translated into Spanish by Don Jose Antonio Conde, in his "Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabos en Espa�a," appears to put the importance of the Battle of Tours in macrohistorical perspective.

Contemporary analysis

Had Martel fallen at Tours the long term implications for European Christianity may have been devastating. His victory there, and in the following campaigns, may have literally saved Europe and Christianity as we know it, from conquest while the Caliphate was unified and able to mount such a conquest. Had the Franks fallen, no other power existed stopping Muslim conquest of Italy and the effective end of what would become the modern Catholic Church. In addition, Martel's incorporation of the stirrup and mailed cavalry into the Frankish army gave birth to the armoured Knights which would form the backbone of western armies for the next five centuries. But had Martel failed, there would have been no Charlemagne, no Holy Roman Empire or Papal States. The majority view argues that all these events occurred because Martel was able to contain Islam from expanding into Europe while it could. His son retook Narbonne, and his Grandson Charlamagne actually established the Marca Hispanica across the Pyrenees in part of what today is Catalonia, reconquering Girona in 785 and Barcelona in 801. This formed a permanent buffer zone against Islam, with Frankish strongholds in Iberia, which became the basis, along with the King of Asturias, named Pelayo (718-737, who started his fight against the Moors in the mountains of Covadonga 722) for the origins of the Reconquista until all of the Muslims were expelled from the Iberia.

No later Muslim attempts against Asturias or the Franks was made as conflict between what remained of the Umayyad Dynasty, (which was the Umayyad Emirate and then Caliphate of Iberia) and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad prevented a unified assault on Europe. It would be another 700 years before the Ottomans managed to invade Europe via the Balkans.

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The Battle of Tours: Where Europe halted Islam

The start of the 8th century was a golden age for Islamic expansionism in Europe. The new religion of Mohammed and his followers swept across the Middle East, north Africa and into southern Spain, and it looked for a moment as if the armies of the Umayyads of Damascus might overrun Europe entirely.

We have already covered the Battle of Guadalete, where the Muslim invaders of Spain overran and defeated the Christian Visigoths and established themselves in western Europe. But this was far from the end of their ambitions, and the armies of the caliphate marched northwards, across Spain and into France.

Europe seemed destined to fall to Islam. It was only at the Battle of Tours, in 732 and after twenty years of fighting the Muslim armies, that they were finally halted.

The High Water Mark

On October 10, 732, the leader of the Franks , Charles Martel and his followers met the Islamic army of Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman near the city of Tours in France. During the battle, the Frankish army defeated the invading Islamic army, and their leader was killed.

The Battle of Tours is therefore seen as an important battle which stopped the progress of Islamic invaders into Europe and preserved Christianity. As Islamic conquests stopped in the European region, Christianity grew in influence in France, Italy and other European countries.

The effort to defeat the Islamic army and stop the conquests was important because the Islamic people were already controlling the Persian Empire and the Old Roman Empire. If they had not been defeated at the Battle of Tours, the influence of Islam would have threatened other established empires and religious institutions in Europe.

The army of the Franks raised to face the Muslim threat was claimed to be enormous. The army’s numbers are recorded to be around 75,000 people but more recent revisions suggest a more modest force of maybe 20,000 soldiers.

• The Battle of Guadalete: How Islam Fought its way into Spain
• Alesia! The Lost Battle and the Roman Conquest of Gaul

The number of Muslims who fought under Abd er Rahman is also uncertain, but the contemporary Christian estimates of 60,000 to 400,000 soldiers seem wildly high. Most likely both sides were evenly matched with the same number of troops.

Moreover, much of the Islamic army was occupied in breaking up into smaller parties to carry out raids and pillaging campaigns of the houses and cultural centers of the Franks. Thus, the actual estimate of the Islamic army is difficult to put down.

However, according to historical accounts, the entire core army of the Muslims was present in the Battle of Tours. The defeat by the Franks, with Christian losses of only 1,500 (according to St. Dennis) was the end of their push northwards.

There are further confusion accounts as to the total number of troops. According to historical texts, the Islamic army waited for six days before the battle started, and during this time, the leaders were able to recalled all parts of their army. It is possible that the Muslim generals themselves did not know how many troops they had amassed.

The Muslims of Northern Spain had taken over Septimania by this time and settled down at Narbonne in southern France , which they called Arbuna. The Muslims were at their peak of power at this time and quickly pacified the nearby territories.

The Muslims threatened the Frankish territories, and the conflict continued for many years. But the Christians hoped that the tide was turning. Before the Battle of Tours, the Frankish people also fought the Battle of Toulouse, and while they were victorious this was not the knock-out blow they were looking for.

The Battle of Tours

As the Muslims pushed into Gaul they faced the Franks in the full might, the most powerful Christian military in Europe. The Muslims were confident: they had swept across much on the known world and, after all, they were convinced they had God on their side.

But the Franks controlled lands across modern France, Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands and were developing into the first European imperial state since the Western Roman Empire. The Muslim threat brought even more soldiers to their banner, as the Frankish realm emerged as a vast conglomerate standing against the Umayyads.

• Outremer: So, you’ve Conquered the Holy Land, Now What?
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It seems the Muslim overconfidence played a significant part in their fall. The army had advanced into Gaul rapidly, outstripping their supply chain, and it seems the Muslim commanders were not anticipating that they would encounter a large army in their path.

For seven days the armies refused to engage in force, and although there were multiple minor battles between outriders and scouting forces neither general wished to risk everything on a concerted attack. However the advantage was with the Franks: they were battle hardened, they had chosen the field, and they had concealed a portion of their force in the wooded uplands, preventing the Muslims from assessing their true strength.

Another problem was that the Muslims could not simply go around the Franks. Tours was a major city and it would need to be conquered and sacked to prevent it raising an army in the Muslims’ rear.

Abd-al-Raḥmân felt compelled to give battle and that his force, comprised largely of cavalry , would win the day. It was he that broke formation, sending out waves of cavalry charges to finally attack the Christian center.

The cavalry charges were witheringly destructive but the disciplined Franks held against the onslaught. Against all military theory of the time, infantry were shown to be able to withstand a cavalry charge, and military tactics were changed forever.

Abd-al-Raḥmân himself was killed towards the end of the day in a Frankish counterattack, shortly before night fell and the battle was paused. When the Franks woke the next day the Muslim camp was deserted.

There would be a second Umayyad invasion a few years later, but it met with defeat. Never again would their armies push from Spain into Europe. It seemed that, with his victory at Tours, Charles Martel had changed the course of history.

Top Image: Charles Martel leads a charge against the Saracens at the Battle of Tours. Source: Levan Ramishvili / Public Domain .

By Bipin Dimri

Latin Library, 2023. Battle of Tours (732 A.D.) Available at: https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/tours.html

Ahmed, N, 2023. The Battle of Tours . Available at: https://historyofislam.com/the-battle-of-tours/

Serafin, C, 2021. The Legacy of Charles Martel & the Battle of Tours . Available at: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1809/the-legacy-of-charles-martel-the-battle-of-tours/

Bipin Dimri

Bipin Dimri is a writer from India with an educational background in Management Studies. He has written for 8 years in a variety of fields including history, health and politics. Read More

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Battle of Tours that Shaped Europe’s Destiny

The Battle of Tours , fought in 732 AD near Poitiers, France, was a pivotal moment in European history. It secured the victory of the Frankish leader, Charles Martel , against the invading Muslim forces of the Umayyad Caliphate and halted their advance into Western Europe . The battle had far-reaching consequences on the continent’s political, religious, and cultural landscape, making it one of the most significant events of the medieval period.

In this article, we’ll explore the background and context of the Battle of Tours , the key players involved, and the battle’s military strategies and tactics . We’ll also examine its long-term impact on European history and its legacy in modern times.

Key Takeaways:

• The Battle of Tours was a decisive turning point in European history.
• Charles Martel’s victory stopped the advance of Muslim forces into Western Europe .
• One important result of the Battle of Tours was that it preserved Western Europe and halted Islamic expansion.

Background of the Battle of Tours

The Battle of Tours was fought between the Frankish army, led by Charles Martel , and the Muslim Moors, led by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi. The battle took place on October 10, 732 AD, near the city of Tours in central France. The conflict marked a significant turning point in European history, halting the Islamic expansion into Western Europe and shaping the course of the continent for centuries to come.

The conflict between the Franks and the Moors began around 711 AD, when the Umayyad Caliphate, based in Damascus, conquered much of the Iberian Peninsula, including modern-day Spain and Portugal. By the early 8th century, the Muslims had established a strong presence in the region and were expanding their territory northward into Gaul (now France).

Charles Martel , the Frankish leader and mayor of the palace, was determined to defend his kingdom against the advancing Muslim armies. He had already defeated the Muslim forces at the Battle of Poitiers in 732 AD, and was now preparing for a second encounter at Tours.

Clash of Civilizations: Christianity vs. Islam

The Battle of Tours was not just a military confrontation; it was a clash of two distinct civilizations – Christianity and Islam . The Islamic conquests had already taken over most of the Middle East, including the Holy Land, and were expanding into North Africa and Europe. The Islamic forces viewed their conquests as a religious duty, spreading the word of Allah through military conquest. On the other hand, the Franks, led by Charles Martel, sought to defend their Christian faith and preserve their culture and way of life.

The Islamic army was led by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, the governor of Al-Andalus (modern-day Spain), and consisted primarily of Berber and Arab warriors. They were well-equipped and highly disciplined, with a formidable cavalry and infantry. The Frankish army, led by Charles Martel, was made up of a diverse group of warriors, including Franks, Gauls, and Burgundians, who fought on foot and horseback.

The Battle of Tours was not only a military conflict, but it was also a clash of civilizations . Religion played a vital role in shaping the conflict, as both sides were fighting to either spread or defend their religious beliefs.

The Importance of Charles Martel

At the Battle of Tours, Charles Martel, the Frankish leader, played a crucial role in securing a decisive victory against the invading Islamic forces. His leadership and strategic decisions helped shape the outcome of the battle and ultimately preserved Western Europe from further Islamic expansion.

Charles Martel’s military expertise and quick thinking proved to be essential in the battle. He ordered his forces to form a defensive wall, consisting of heavily armed infantrymen, which successfully repelled the repeated attacks of the Muslim cavalry. This defensive tactic prevented the Islamic forces from flanking the Frankish army and gave Charles Martel’s troops time to regroup and reorganize.

In addition to his tactical prowess, Charles Martel was also instrumental in building the Frankish army into a formidable fighting force. He introduced new weapons and armor, improved training methods, and established a system of centralized command and control. All of these measures helped create a highly disciplined and effective army, capable of taking on any opponent.

Charles Martel’s importance to the Battle of Tours cannot be overstated. Without his leadership and strategic decisions, the outcome of the battle may have been very different. His legacy as a great military leader and defender of Western Europe continues to be remembered and celebrated to this day.

Battle Strategies and Tactics

The Battle of Tours was a clash between two vastly different armies, with different strategies and tactics . The Muslim army was composed of light cavalry and relied heavily on the use of archers, while the Frankish army consisted primarily of heavy infantry.

The Muslim army’s primary tactic was the hit-and-run attack, where they would charge their enemy, unleash a flurry of arrows, and then retreat before the Franks could respond. They sought to wear down their enemy through attrition rather than engage them in a direct confrontation.

On the other hand, Charles Martel’s strategy was to remain defensive and let the Muslim army come to him. He ordered his troops to form a wall of shields, creating a barrier that the Muslim cavalry could not penetrate. This tactic proved successful, as the Muslim army began to tire and lose steam after several unsuccessful charges.

Once the Muslim army was weakened, Charles Martel ordered his troops to launch a counter-attack, using their superior strength and weapons to crush the enemy. The Frankish army’s use of heavy cavalry was also instrumental in the victory, as it allowed them to break through the Muslim ranks and disrupt their formations.

Overall, it was Charles Martel’s defensive strategy and tactical decisions that ultimately led to his victory. He recognized the strengths and weaknesses of his enemy and adapted his army’s tactics accordingly, ultimately preserving Western Europe from Muslim conquest.

Result: Preservation of Western Europe

The Battle of Tours was a significant event in European history that halted the advance of Islamic forces and preserved the future of Western Europe. Charles Martel’s victory was a turning point that shaped the destiny of Europe, paving the way for the rise of feudalism and the formation of modern nation-states.

By defeating the Islamic forces at the Battle of Tours, Charles Martel established himself as a powerful leader and prevented further expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate into Western Europe. This victory ensured the preservation of Christianity and Western culture, which played a critical role in shaping the future of Europe.

Without Charles Martel’s strategic decisions and the bravery of his army, the history of Europe would have been vastly different. The Battle of Tours was a critical moment in European history, ensuring the preservation of Western values and ultimately, the formation of modern Europe as we know it today.

Long-Term Implications

The Battle of Tours, fought in 732 CE, was a significant turning point in European history with profound long-term implications . The victory of Charles Martel’s forces halted the advance of Islamic expansion into Western Europe and ensured the preservation of European culture and identity.

The battle also played a crucial role in the rise of feudalism, a system of governance that dominated Europe for centuries. The conflict created a need for local leaders to protect their communities, leading to the emergence of localized power structures that eventually evolved into the feudal system.

Furthermore, the Battle of Tours contributed to the formation of modern nation-states. The victory served as a symbol of European unity and a shared identity, leading to the development of nations that reflected this collective identity. It helped shape the political and social structure of Europe, influencing its future development.

The legacy of the Battle of Tours continues to be felt today. It has become a defining moment in the history of Europe and has played a key role in shaping its identity. The importance of this battle and its impact on European history cannot be overstated.

Legacy and Historical Significance

More than a millennium after the Battle of Tours, its legacy remains ingrained in European history. The significance of this battle cannot be overstated, as it marked the first significant blow against the Muslim conquest of Europe and prevented the continent from being engulfed by Islamic forces.

The Battle of Tours also proved to be a pivotal moment in the rise of Western Europe. Charles Martel’s victory contributed to the formation of modern nation-states and the development of feudalism, which dominated the European political landscape for centuries to come.

The triumph of Charles Martel’s forces also had a profound impact on European identity. The Battle of Tours allowed Europeans to define themselves against an “other,” and the victory became a symbolic moment of Christian triumph over Islamic forces. This idea of a clash of civilizations would continue to shape European identity for centuries to come.

Today, the Battle of Tours is remembered as a crucial turning point in European history. Its significance is celebrated in French cultural memory as the moment when the country was saved from Islamic conquest. The battle remains a potent symbol of Western resistance against outside forces and the triumph of Christian civilization against its enemies.

In conclusion , the Battle of Tours marked a turning point in European history as it halted the advance of Islamic forces and preserved Western Europe. Charles Martel’s strategic leadership and military prowess played a significant role in the outcome of this battle. The clash between Christianity and Islam that took place during this event had long-lasting implications, including the rise of feudalism and the formation of modern nation-states.

Without the decisive victory of Charles Martel’s forces at the Battle of Tours, the course of European history could have been dramatically different. This battle ensured that the values and traditions of Western Europe were upheld and allowed for the development of the unique European identity that exists today.

In conclusion , the Battle of Tours was a crucial turning point that shaped Europe’s destiny . Its significance cannot be overstated, and it is a testament to the power of strategic leadership and military prowess in shaping history. The result of this battle is felt even today, and it serves as a reminder of the importance of preserving our cultural heritage and traditions.

Q: What was the significance of the Battle of Tours?

A: The Battle of Tours was a turning point in European history as it halted the advance of Islamic forces into Western Europe and preserved Christianity as the dominant religion.

Q: What led to the Battle of Tours?

A: The Battle of Tours was the result of the expansionist ambitions of the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate and the desire of Charles Martel, the Frankish leader, to protect his kingdom.

Q: Who were the key players in the Battle of Tours?

A: The Battle of Tours was fought between the armies of Charles Martel and the Umayyad Caliphate, led by Abd al-Rahman. Charles Martel’s tactical brilliance played a crucial role in the outcome of the battle.

Q: What were the military strategies and tactics used in the Battle of Tours?

A: Both sides employed various strategies and tactics during the Battle of Tours, including the use of cavalry charges, shield walls, and defensive formations. Charles Martel’s decision to hold his ground and utilize his infantry effectively contributed to his victory.

Q: How did the Battle of Tours impact Europe?

A: The Battle of Tours preserved Western Europe and halted the Islamic advance, preventing the region from falling under Islamic rule. This victory had significant implications for the rise of feudalism and the formation of modern nation-states.

Q: What is the long-term significance of the Battle of Tours?

A: The Battle of Tours influenced European history in the long term by shaping the course of feudalism and contributing to the development of modern nation-states. It also played a role in defining European identity and the ongoing conflict between Christian and Islamic civilizations.

Q: How is the Battle of Tours remembered in history?

A: The Battle of Tours is remembered as a decisive victory for Charles Martel and a pivotal moment in European history. It serves as a symbol of the clash between Christianity and Islam and the defense of Western civilization.

Q: What is the conclusion about the Battle of Tours?

A: The Battle of Tours was a critical event that shaped the destiny of Europe. Charles Martel’s victory preserved Western Europe from Islamic conquest, influencing the rise of feudalism and the development of modern nation-states. It remains an important turning point in European history.

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In 732, Charles Martel led the Franks to victory against the Arabs at the Battle of Tours (Poitiers). It is widely believed that the Muslim advance was halted due to this legendary fight.

Historians disagree on the exact date, but October 25th, 732 seems to be when the Battle of Tours (Poitiers) occurred. During this period, the Umayyad caliphate of Muslims controlled almost all of Spain. They made repeated inroads into Gaul and even occupied the southeast of the region. The Duke of Aquitaine, Eudes (Odo the Great), faced another invasion in 732 and enlisted the help of the Franks under Charles Martel to repel it.

Since the Franks and Aquitaine celebrated their victory against the Muslims headed by Abd al-Rahman, who was killed in the engagement, the decisive combat has been commemorated in history as the “Battle of Tours,” even though the precise site of the fighting is unknown. While warfare persisted for several more years, this incident came to symbolize the end of the Arab invasion of France. It will have been worthwhile since it increased Charles Martel’s influence and helped bring about the Carolingian victory over the Merovingians.

Why did the Battle of Tours (Poitiers) take place?

The Umayyad Caliphate maintained its massive growth in the early eighth century, expanding its control over most of North Africa and the eastern section of the Arabian Peninsula. In addition to controlling modern-day Portugal and Spain on the Iberian Peninsula, the caliphate also overran southern Europe with the help of a formidable cavalry of Berbers who had just converted to Islam. Located in the southeast of France, the Visigoths conquered the city of Narbonne and eventually became firmly rooted inside the Visigothic Kingdom in Septimania.

They often made raids over the Pyrenees, known as razzias, to steal valuables. In 719, the caliphate started paying attention to the Frankish realm. In 721, during one of his expeditions, he was soundly defeated by Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine (Odo the Great), and his forces in Toulouse.

But in 732, Abd al-Rahman led a new raid and ravaged Aquitaine. Duke of the Franks and mayor of the palace is a designation more often associated with a monarch than a mayor; thus, Eudes had to summon Charles Martel. Thus, Charles Martel and Eudes (Odo the Great), Duke of Aquitaine, will work together to repel the Islamic invasion.

What is the correct place and date of the Battle of Tours?

There is considerable agreement among historians that 732 was the year of the Battle of Poitiers; however, others say it occurred in 733. As for when exactly, it is still very speculative. This is unquestionably the 25th of October, 732, a Saturday. Arab reports, which are now considered the most credible, place the fight on the first Saturday of Ramadan (114 of the Hegira) or October 25. Historians are also sharply split about the precise location of the battle.

Rather than mentioning the Battle of Poitiers, the Anglo-Saxon chroniclers of the period refer to the Battle of Tours . A reasonable assumption, given the apparent destination of Abd al-Rahman: Rahman’s sanctuary in Saint-Martin in Tours. Another theory places the conflict in the little town of Moussais-la-Bataille, inside the commune of Vouneuil-sur-Vienne, about 25 kilometers from Poitiers.

Who were the main protagonists of the Battle of Tours in 732?

In the Umayyad Caliphate’s army, Abd al-Rahman held the rank of general. In 721, he participated in the Battle of Toulouse. Hisham, the Caliph, named him wali (governor) of Al-Andalus in 730. Thus, he was in command of the whole Iberian peninsula that the Muslims had conquered during the preceding decades. Charles Martel, for his part, held the titles of duke of the Franks and mayor of the palace. During that ancient period, there was no such thing as France. Charles Martel ruled over what was still a divided Francia.

He set out to expand his domain, particularly to the east. The Burgundians were also governed by Charles Martel. On the other side, Eudes reigned over the huge duchy of Aquitaine, which covered a sizable portion of present-day southern France. Eudes of Aquitaine, like Charles Martel, was an ambitious man, and in 719 their forces fought one another. Eudes, defeated, made a peace deal with the Franks and thereafter had to endure constant invasions from the south by the Arabs. An event that would lead him to form an alliance with Charles Martel in 732 for the Battle of Tours.

How did the Battle of Tours in 732 take place?

Charles Martel and Eudes mustered around 20,000 troops between them. Abd al-Rahman amassed a crowd of 25,000. Abd al-Rahman, true to the strategies that permitted Muslims to take over such a large area, sent out his powerful cavalry, which consisted mostly of Berber fighters. However, the other side employs an entirely different tactic.

The bulk of the Frankish army is made up of foot men. Strongly armed and nearly entirely armored in steel, they are formidable foes. They formed a tight line to fend off the terrifying attack, as wave after wave of enemy riders were impaled on the impregnable barrier. A actual “rampart of ice” would be mentioned in the future by Arab historians.

Who won the Battle of Tours in 732?

After a week of fighting, it seems that Eudes’s forces were successful in attacking the Muslims from behind, forcing them to retreat in order to save not only their loot but also the families who had joined them on the raids. There was a retreat by the Arabs toward Narbonne. As Abd al-Rahman was slain in the battle, the victory was decisive. The Arabs lost a total of 12,000 troops in the battle, while their opponents lost just 1,000.

What were the effects of the Battle of Tours in 732?

The outcome of the Battle of Tours was pivotal for the development of the French monarchy. The big political victor was Charles Martel, who aided Duke Eudes of Aquitaine. Because Aquitaine stubbornly defied him, his power was diminished. As a result, he was able to quickly seize control of Bordeaux, a rich city. In the years after his death in 735, Eudes’ sons took over as dukes of Aquitaine. But this was a pivotal moment in history, and Aquitaine eventually became a part of the Frankish empire under Charlemagne’s rule.

The second crucial point is the well-known saying, “Charles Martel defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Tours.” An asymmetrical dictum Although the extension of the Umayyad caliphate into Western Europe was halted thanks to Charles Martel’s triumph, the conflict itself persisted for decades. Bayonne, for instance, was ruled by Muslims until the year 759. Even when Charlemagne , the future ruler of Europe, arrived in the early ninth century, Europe still suffered from sporadic attacks.

Bibliography:

• Mastnak, Tomaž (2002).  Crusading Peace: Christendom, the Muslim World, and Western Political Order . University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22635-6
• Oman, Charles W. (1960).  Art of War in the Middle Ages A.D. 378–1515 . Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9062-6
• Poke, The Battle of Tours, from the book  Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World From Marathon to Waterloo by Sir Edward Creasy, MA
• Reagan, Geoffrey,  The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles , Canopy Books, New York (1992) ISBN 1-55859-431-0
• Collins, Roger (1989).  The Arab Conquest of Spain: 710–797 . Oxford, England: Blackwell. ISBN  978-0-631-15923-0 .

The Rick Steves guide to life

Travel mogul. philanthropist. legal weed champion. the real rick steves is so much more complex than who you see on tv..

EDMONDS, Wash. — At first glance, it is hard to tell that Rick Steves is protesting.

In the center of his hometown, America’s favorite travel host is perched on the edge of a fountain roundabout engaging in some friendly civil disobedience. As cars circle the intersection, Steves smiles and waves, looking more like an Elf on a Shelf than an angry picketer. This is his way of reminding people he wishes they’d stop driving here.

Steves’s family moved to Edmonds when he was 12, and the 68-year-old is still happy to call it home. Rather than relocate to his beloved Europe, he dreams of bringing some European sensibilities to the edge of the Puget Sound, less than 20 miles north of Seattle.

When he’s not traveling around Europe, writing about Europe or running his multimillion dollar European tour company, the prolific TV host and author likes to squeeze in some local activism. The roundabout routine is his push to block off Edmonds’s very American Main Street for pedestrians. If you squint at it, you can see what Steves sees: this would be the perfect place for a lively town square.

“I like a lot of things about Europe but I love the urban energy of Europe. I love the piazza,” Steves said in a wistful tone you might recognize from PBS. “We don’t have a piazza.”

Unfortunately for Steves, the voting majority of the city does not love the idea of parking their SUVs farther away to shop. So despite his Boy Scout enthusiasm, the most famous man in Edmonds must keep up the perch-and-wave. This is not his only crusade.

Spend any amount of time with Steves, and you’ll encounter a total ham who loves a zany bit. But if you ask him about serious issues like car-free zones, he’ll bring up other causes that are dear to him: affordable housing, supporting the arts, creating senior centers for the elderly to age with dignity.

He’s anti-Trump and pro-cannabis. He does not care if that is bad for business.

The average Rick Steves fan has likely missed this side of him. On TV they see an always-sunny history lover who makes going abroad feel approachable for the average American. That’s an incomplete picture, like thinking you know Paris because you’ve seen the Eiffel Tower on YouTube.

Meet him in Edmonds, and he’ll fill in the rest.

It may look like a lot of gallivanting, but being Rick Steves takes a lot of work.

He spends three months of the year overseas, researching, writing, recording, refining tours, updating guidebooks. If he’s not planning or producing content, he’s often doing promotional events across the United States. This year Steves is celebrating the 40th edition of his first book, “Europe Through the Back Door.” Over the course of his career, he’s built a privately held company that generates $120 million in revenue a year, published 110 books, filmed 12 seasons of “Rick Steves’ Europe” and produced more than 750 podcast episodes.

“It’s just like coordinating a three-ring circus,” Steves said.

That is: really fun, sort of exhilarating and extremely complicated. To pull this off, Steves does not observe the French 35-hour workweek. He’s a workhorse with a reputation for keeping a frenetic pace year-round.

“It’s more of an American work culture,” Amy Duncan, Steves’s communications director, told me. “He’s an unapologetic capitalist but he is also a socialist.”

He makes enough money to fly first class, but he only sits in economy, claiming he doesn’t mind being cramped.

“It never occurred to me that I’m suffering,” he said. “As long as I’ve got an aisle and a seat that reclines, I’m happy.”

Actually, Steves believes airlines should only have one class. It’s part of his egalitarian worldview. He’s also anti-points and anti-miles, refusing to sign up for airline loyalty programs because he believes they bully us into complicating our lives.

Steves also enforces a self-imposed “ carbon tax ” on his tour company, which takes more than 30,000 people to Europe annually. For every customer, Steves invests $30 to atone for emissions created by their flights between the United States and Europe. Last year, that added up to $1 million donated to a portfolio of organizations, Steves said.

“I don’t need to be a slave to the quarterly profit statement. I want to be around and profitable in 10 years from now in a world that you can travel in that’s stable,” Steves said. “This is a smart investment and it’s an ethical expense that I should pay for.”

Rick Steves will tell you he’s motivated by making money; the more he can earn, the more good he can do with it.

“Vicarious consumption, that’s one of my things,” Steves said.

After amassing a windfall from the 2001 George W. Bush tax cuts for high earners, Rick Steves donated $1 million to support the local symphony and performing arts center. In 2005, he used retirement savings to buy a 24-unit apartment complex for the local YWCA’s use as transitional housing for women and children. He figured he’d eventually sell the complex and live on the earnings. About a decade later, he changed his mind and donated the complex valued at $4 million.

He also gave more than $4 million to help build the Edmonds Waterfront Center, a vibrant gathering place for seniors where his daughter had her wedding in 2021. And he gave another $2 million for a similar center in the nearby city of Lynnwood, which broke ground in mid-April .

“Rick puts his money where his mouth is,” said Nancy Leson, a former Seattle Times food critic who used to let Steves’s daughter babysit her son. She’s appreciated his regular presence in the community, like hosting events for local politics at his house and shopping at the farmers market .

“He changed travel,” local resident Karen Howe said on her way into the Waterfront Center with a friend. She’s used Steves’s guidebooks for years. “He’s introduced us to places that most of us would never think of going.”

Rick Steves hasn’t won his piazza battle, but he has brought European touches to Edmonds. At the Rick Steves’ Europe headquarters, there’s an E.U. flag hanging from the mocha brick facade. And gargoyles that drain rainwater, just like at the Notre Dame cathedral.

“Gargoyles scare away evil spirits,” Steves points out, unable to suppress his inner tour guide.

Here Steves employs more than 100 people: editors, audio producers, tour specialists and cartographers such as Dave Hoerlein, his first employee. That’s excluding the fleet of guides and drivers he contracts across the pond to shepherd tour customers.

Inside, he bounds through a maze of cubicles, his neck craned forward, always at an eager pace. His 6-foot frame appears leaner than previous seasons of his life, but his signature look is familiar. No, not khakis and a button-down. That’s vintage Rick. These days, he wears dark jeans and a button-down, plus a thin scarf and leather sneakers.

During a day of meetings, Steves’s fjord-blue eyes lit up at the minutia of the business. He went over new maps with Hoerlein. He and longtime co-author Cameron Hewitt addressed problems like finding a “less glitzy” stop on the Amalfi Coast that’s not Sorrento. They discussed whether a place is worth visiting after it’s gotten too popular, and Steves indulged in some gallows humor.

“It’s going to be like holding the corpse of a loved one who just died,” he said.

His critics argue the “Rick Steves Effect” can turn a charming village, restaurant or museum into a tourist magnet. Matthew Kepnes, the travel writer behind the blog Nomadic Matt , points to the Swiss town Zermatt, which he says Steves put on the map, and has since dealt with overtourism . You’re bound to bump into groups with Rick Steves guidebooks in Italy’s increasingly crowded Cinque Terre.

Whether Steves is actually to blame for changing a place is up for debate. There are plenty of destinations he’s covered that haven’t been inundated with swarms of Americans (see also: Gdańsk).

Steves says he assesses whether a place wants tourism, if it can handle it gracefully. If they don’t or can’t, he may mention it but not promote it.

He has faith — maybe too much — that his clients share his values.

“Does [my work] change the personality of a town? It can. Am I a dramatic impact on Europe? No,” he said.

“There’s a handful of places I really promote aggressively that I’ve had a serious impact on, but otherwise ... my travelers are the kind of people that take only pictures and leave only footprints ... they’re good travelers.”

You don’t have to spend much time in Edmonds to see why Rick Steves never considered leaving.

The city — population roughly 42,000 — sits on a majestic inlet. You can get to a major international airport in about an hour. The community is so courteous, it has an “umbrella share” program in case people forget their own on a rainy day. As Steves walks around town, he greets people by name. He lives within walking distance to both his favorite diner and a pétanque court, the French answer to Italian bocce. He plays bongos at his church on Sundays.

In 1967, Richard “Dick” Steves moved the family here because he was worried about Rick Junior.

“I was hanging out with dangerous kids and going down the wrong trail,” Steves said. Seriously.

His dad, an Army veteran, got by in the upscale suburb as a piano technician and importer. When Steves was 14, his parents dragged him on a work trip to Europe to visit piano factories; it was a radical experience that sparked his lifelong passion for travel.

Back in Edmonds, Steves started teaching piano, eventually turning his savings into trips abroad of his own — not only to Europe, but Turkey, Nepal, Afghanistan. He went to college nearby, earning degrees in European history and business from the University of Washington, where he played in the Husky Marching Band.

After graduation, Steves figured he could keep up his routine: give piano lessons during the school year, then travel during the summer. He started teaching travel classes in the same recital hall where his piano students performed. This was back when there was no internet and few guidebooks to consult for trip planning.

The classes were a hit. At 25, Steves turned his lecture materials into a 180-page book, and self-published “Europe Through the Back Door,” in 1980.

Four years later, he hosted his first European minibus tour group, serving as both bus driver and guide.

His businesses have evolved — his bus tours now take up to 28 travelers, a number Steves says is a sweet spot between making the tour more affordable yet enjoyable for customers and profitable for the company. But his mission has remained the same: to be the best resource for European travel and help Americans travel better.

“I just focus on that and I love it,” he said. “It takes my life out of balance — which is not good — but it lets me do a lot of stuff that I believe in and that’s good.”

Steves has been open about the challenges of being a travel mogul. As he built his empire, he was also raising a family. Being “married” to both took a toll. In 2010, Steves and his wife, Anne, divorced after 25 years of marriage.

Up the hill from his junior high, Rick Steves’s modest beige home offers a window into his many lives. There are family photos on the walls, from older relatives to his baby grandson, Atlas. He hosts political fundraisers on the sprawling deck. A painting of Kerala, India, nods to one of his favorite countries (people forget Steves did four editions of “Asia Through the Back Door”).

Next to his grand piano, there’s a stuffed creature that Steves calls his “Silver Fox” baring its teeth and wearing novelty sunglasses with cannabis leaves on the lenses — a nod to two of his interests: taxidermy and marijuana activism.

“It’s the civil liberties … it’s the racism … everything about it is wrong,” he said of keeping weed illegal.

As for the toothy fox, Steves doesn’t do typical souvenirs anymore, but he makes an exception for stuffed animals.

“The wooden shoes and the pewter Viking ships are so obvious,” he said. “I like to do something a little more organic and a little more striking and it takes me back there — I like it.”

He’s a very good piano player. He can also play the sousaphone and the trumpet — which he did regularly during the pandemic, performing taps for his neighbors at sunset.

Covid-19 was a nightmare for the travel business, but a miracle for Rick Steves’s love life.

After running in the same social circles for years, he and Shelley Bryan Wee, a prominent local bishop, started dating at the end of 2019. They had a lot in common. Both are progressive Lutherans. Both are divorced with adult children. But neither worked a typical 9-to-5, and one of them spent three months of the year in Europe.

Then lockdown happened. Steves, who couldn’t remember if he’d ever had dinner in the same place 10 nights in a row, spent 100 nights at the same table with Wee. It solidified their relationship.

“Shelley is a constant,” Steves said. He still struggles with the balancing act between work and love.

When the stars align and they’re both in Edmonds, Wee cooks, and Steves plays sous chef. They walk Jackson, Wee’s labradoodle, creating their own version of the passeggiata, Italy’s traditional evening stroll. They play table tennis before dinner.

When the world reopened, they started traveling together. They’ve made time for a few big vacations: a trip to Morocco, where they were caught in a windstorm that blew the windows out of their car; a luxury barge cruise through Burgundy, France, “that was embarrassingly expensive,” Steves confessed, followed by a week hiking in the Swiss Alps; and another hiking trip between remote lodges on Mont Blanc.

Before their first trip, Steves edited the contents of Wee’s suitcase, because packing light is part of his philosophy.

“What do you say?” she asked. “You’re talking to Rick Steves.”

Editing by Gabe Hiatt. Additional editing by Amanda Finnegan. Design editing by Christine Ashack. Photo editing by Lauren Bulbin. Videos by Monica Rodman. Senior video producer: Nicki DeMarco. Design by Katty Huertas. Copy editing by Jamie Zega.

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Safety concerns: A door blew off an Alaska Airlines Boeing 737 Max 9 jet, leaving passengers traumatized — but without serious injuries. The ordeal led to widespread flight cancellations after the jet was grounded, and some travelers have taken steps to avoid the plane in the future. The incident has also sparked a fresh discussion about whether it’s safe to fly with a baby on your lap .

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ACROSS THE COUNTRY

Showcase for Antebellum Homes Displays Their Finery. But What About the History?

Each spring, Columbus, Miss., has opened its Civil War-era homes to visitors. Some say the event should reflect more the oppression behind the architecture, and how the city has changed since.

WHY WE’RE HERE

We’re exploring how America defines itself one place at a time. In Mississippi, a tradition of house tours is about more than architecture. It’s a window into how a city sees its past and its ambitions for the future.

By Rick Rojas

Photographs by Kate Medley

Reporting from Columbus, Miss.

Women in hoop dresses ushered visitors one April morning into the grand old house known as Riverview, showing off the hand-carved wooden chairs, oil paintings, tapestries and gilded mirrors brought from around the world to the estate in Mississippi.

The house stood as a testament to the prosperity that had flowed before the Civil War in Southern cities like Columbus, just over the border from Alabama, as fertile soil and the labor of enslaved workers built fortunes.

It was also a highlight of the longstanding tradition known as Pilgrimage. Every spring, the city’s finest antebellum homes are opened to the public for a few weeks, inviting people in to marvel at the craftsmanship and the opulence.

The event took its name from the belief among its organizers that Pilgrimage was just that — a journey to houses whose grandeur, scale and history represent something sacred for Mississippi and all of the South. Homeowners and docents often dress in period clothing to facilitate the time travel.

“We have a culture here that is something to be admired and respected,” said Dick Leike, the owner of Riverview. “This is a prime example of it.”

But these days, some in Columbus are finding it difficult to justify a trip to a gauzy version of the city’s past without accounting for the suffering, injustice and violence associated with the slave labor that built and ran these homes. That has led to competing ideas about the scope of Pilgrimage and the story it is supposed to tell.

A theatrical production staged by a local high school every year during the weekslong event now depicts the plights of enslaved African Americans and 19th-century immigrants who lived in Columbus. The local synagogue has been added to a church tour. Other events feature the region’s Choctaw and Chickasaw history.

“It seems like Pilgrimage only told one story, and that traditionally attracted a certain demographic — an older demographic, a more white demographic,” said Jace Ferraez, a 34-year-old lawyer who left Columbus after growing up there, moved back and is buying a historic home with his fiancé.

He and other like-minded residents, he said, “want to tell a fuller story.” The aim is to relay history with more breadth, but also showcase the city as it is now, encompassing its struggles, strengths and sense of possibility.

No interstate runs through Columbus, whose population of 23,000 is roughly one-third white and two-thirds Black. Poverty has been a persistent issue, as has persuading young people to choose to stay in Columbus.

Still, parts of the city are lively. Friendly City Books, an independent bookseller, opened downtown a few years ago and became a haven for its regulars. An arts center up the block displays the works of local artists like Ralph Null, a celebrated floral designer turned painter. Newcomers can easily get recruited to a perpetual circuit of cocktail gatherings.

“There’s a lot of things that can divide a community — economic status, race, the list goes on,” Mr. Ferraez said. But, he added, Pilgrimage could be more inclusive and reflect Columbus’s diversity and its aspirations. “It helps bring people together.”

The diverging ideas about Pilgrimage are just another variation of a familiar tension in the Deep South, where the past so rarely stays in the past. For some, the enduring consequences of systemic oppression are what keep them in history’s grip. For others, it is an abiding desire to hold onto what they consider a glorious legacy.

Four years ago, Mississippi abandoned the state flag that flew for 126 years with a Confederate battle emblem embedded in it, and the Confederate monument that had been perched for a century on the lawn of the Lowndes County Courthouse in Columbus was moved to a secluded cemetery in 2021.

But this month, Gov. Tate Reeves signed a proclamation designating April as Confederate Heritage Month, as he and his predecessors have done almost every year since 1993 . Many residents of the state still insist that reasons other than slavery drove the Civil War.

As Mr. Leike pointed out marble flooring on the porch, ornate molding in the parlors and stained glass made by Italian artists, he said that outsiders clung to stereotypes of the South as impoverished — financially, culturally and intellectually.

That was why he opened up Riverview for Pilgrimage. The house was an irrefutable rebuttal.

“You want the people to know we’re not just down here in shanties,” said Mr. Leike, a prominent figure in the real estate industry in the region.

The fact that Columbus still has scores of antebellum homes is a direct result of history. Few Southern cities can count that many, as most of theirs were destroyed in the war. But many in Columbus had been spared because the city was a hospital town treating Confederate and Union soldiers, residents said.

Pilgrimage began in Columbus around 1940 as a way to display and safeguard these homes. Over the years, the event has drawn tourists to Columbus and ticket sales have supported nonprofits behind the programs. The city, like others with their own take on Pilgrimage, followed Natchez, a city on the Mississippi River with an even larger roster of houses .

Tell Us About Where You Live

On a recent morning, Joe Beckett, a contractor who specializes in renovating antebellum homes, walked visitors through one that he worked on called Snowdoun, built in 1854.

He pointed out that Jefferson Davis had once delivered a speech from the front balcony — just one of the many prominent figures who had passed through, he said.

His face lit up, though, as he explained the surprises and challenges that he stumbled across in his work: the intricate setup of wooden pieces engineered to undergird a curved staircase, the painstaking process of mixing 19th-century compounds by hand to match an original paint color or the lamp that he was converting back to being powered by gas.

“Pretty cool, pretty cool,” Mr. Beckett said.

He wanted to share that passion with others.

No one involved in Pilgrimage had any interest in papering over the sins of slavery, he said, or overlooking the contributions of enslaved people, either.

“We don’t get into a lot of the detail,” Mr. Beckett said, referring to mentions of slavery during Pilgrimage. “But we do recognize their input, their value and the services they provided to build these homes, to build our culture.”

Still, some of those trying to maintain the tradition are attempting a delicate balance, celebrating the houses — their splendor, their sophistication — without explicitly examining the injustices they also represent.

An impossible balance, others argue.

“The problem is that it is also a celebration and endorsement of slaveholding,” said Chuck Yarborough, a history teacher at the Mississippi School for Mathematics and Science, a public boarding school in Columbus that draws high-achieving students from across the state.

The answer, in his mind, is not selectively ignoring parts of the past. Instead, Mr. Yarborough said, Pilgrimage is an opportunity to lay it all out, recognizing “the completeness and the complexity.”

“I think it’s important for a community to have an honest view of itself,” he said.

“Tales From the Crypt,” a performance staged in a cemetery by students at Mr. Yarborough’s school for more than 30 years, is trying to do just that.

Mr. Yarborough’s students use historical documents, like newspaper articles or immigration records, to write and perform vignettes that flesh out people from the past, and shade in the context of the world they inhabited.

As dusk faded into night during one performance, the audience was guided from one torch-lit scene to another.

One student, Antanae Shelton, portrayed a free woman of color who explained how her status was a misnomer; her freedom was saddled with so many restrictions it was not really freedom at all.

Drew Dowdy played a Greek immigrant named Victor Corfeates who opened a confectionary in Columbus and, according to Mr. Dowdy, sought and found acceptance from his neighbors. “Sweetness ignores the borders between men,” he said.

The specter of a woman who lived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries named Frances Saunders Billups Westmoreland embodied the city’s dilemma in determining how to regard its past, according to Brooke Anderson’s interpretation.

Ms. Westmoreland’s family had been a powerful one. She had grown up in one of those grand estates. Her grandfather had enslaved more than 200 people.

Once, those details had been markers of status and success. But pride had curdled into shame. Ms. Westmoreland, as channeled by Ms. Anderson, confessed that she had “overlooked the suffering and hardship my family contributed to.”

“I suppose I have an eternity to think about that,” the ghost said as she retreated into the darkness, her face buried in her hands.

Rick Rojas is the Atlanta bureau chief for The Times, leading coverage of the South. More about Rick Rojas

Across the Country

We’re exploring how america defines itself one place at a time..

Georgia: Augusta National Golf Club has long forbidden cellphones for almost anyone  at its hallowed tournament, the Masters, but patrons delight in making free calls the old-school way via landlines.

Maine: In a rural area where a small Jewish population often needs grit, ingenuity and strong relationships to achieve its goals, a liberal arts college and a synagogue have long been closely tied .

Beaufort, N.C.: The Bodacious Belles, a locally famous group of rambunctious retirees, shows the difference a network of support can make in an aging America .

Minnesota: Saunas in the state, part of a tradition with roots in the 1800s, have been especially popular  since the pandemic as more people seek a communal experience.

Metairie, La.: A tire shop parking lot has become a popular destination for those craving a king cake, a Mardi Gras delicacy. The only problem: Which variety to choose ?

New England: Across New England, 700 towns once handed out ceremonial canes to their oldest residents. In some places, the honor endures  — for those willing to accept it, that is.

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LEADER JEFFRIES STATEMENT ON THE PASSING OF CONGRESSMAN DONALD M. PAYNE, JR.

Brooklyn, NY – Democratic Leader Hakeem Jeffries issued the following statement upon the news of the death of Congressman Donald M. Payne, Jr.: Today is a difficult day as we mourn the loss of a beloved public servant, colleague and dear friend. Over his six terms in Congress, Representative Donald M. Payne, Jr. was a tremendous advocate for the people of New Jersey’s Tenth Congressional District, following in the footsteps of his father, the first African American Member of Congress from the state. Rep. Donald Payne, Jr.’s long and valiant career in public service began when he founded the Newark South Ward Junior Democrats and continued at the Municipal Council of Newark and Essex County Board of Freeholders, always fighting for those he was privileged to represent. Don led this fight with vigorous passion and personal conviction, his own courageous battle with Type 1 Diabetes informing much of his life’s work to make our communities safer and healthier. Don Payne Jr. was a strong supporter of the Affordable Care Act and an outspoken advocate for men’s health, leading efforts to provide accessible screening and treatment options for cancer patients. As Chairman of the Railroad Subcommittee for the House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, Congressman Payne was instrumental in fighting for critical upgrades to New Jersey’s transit system and in crafting the historic Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act that has strengthened our nation. A Member of the House Committee on Homeland Security, Don passed legislation to protect America’s children and to make DHS communication more effective during emergencies. Don leaves behind a legacy of relentless determination in the face of adversity. Our nation is forever indebted to Rep. Payne, Jr. for his service and commitment to his community, to the Congress and to the country. I am grateful to my classmate and friend for the role he played in my own public service journey, through our conversations on train rides to and from Washington and our close partnership as Members from neighboring delegations.  I join the entire House Democratic Caucus in expressing our sincere condolences to Don’s wife Beatrice, his children Donald III, Jack and Yvonne and the entire Payne family.