vaccines for travel on nhs

Travel health advice and travel vaccinations

You should make an appointment for a travel health risk assessment if you’re travelling abroad and think you need:

• a malaria risk assessment
• further advice

A travel health professional will take you through your travel health risk assessment.

Your GP is no longer your point of contact for a travel health risk assessment, including travel vaccines.

NHS travel health service

NHS Scotland provides a travel health service that includes some free vaccines.

To find information on how to make an appointment for a travel health risk assessment in Scotland, contact the NHS health board where you live.

Private travel clinics

You can also visit an independent (private) travel clinic for:

• a travel health risk assessment
• travel advice
• other travel vaccines

You should arrange a travel health risk assessment 6 to 8 weeks before you travel. This gives time for any vaccines you need to become fully effective.

If your trip is sooner, remember it’s never too late to get advice.

Travel health risk assessment

If you’re planning to travel outside the UK, your travel health needs will depend on your individual situation. This includes:

• your destination
• how long you’ll stay
• what you’ll be doing
• your general health

The fitfortravel website provides country-specific advice on:

• recommended vaccines
• other risk prevention advice

If you think you need vaccines and/or a malaria risk assessment, you should make an appointment with a travel health professional.

A travel health risk assessment is also recommended for some people, even when vaccines or malaria tablets aren’t required. This includes:

• older people
• those with a weakened immune system
• those with long-term conditions that need medications
• pregnant women

Travel vaccines

The following travel vaccines are free on the NHS in Scotland:

• diphtheria, polio and tetanus (combined booster)
• hepatitis A

It’s likely that you’ll have to pay for vaccines against:

• yellow fever
• Japanese encephalitis
• tick-borne encephalitis

You may also have to pay for the following vaccines if they’re only needed for travel purposes:

• hepatitis B
• tuberculosis (TB)

Proof of vaccination

To enter some countries you may need proof that you have had particular vaccines. This includes the yellow fever vaccine.

Yellow fever vaccines are only available from designated centres. To find out if you need a yellow fever vaccine or proof of the vaccine, you should contact a yellow fever clinic.

To request a list of any other vaccines held on your GP record, contact your GP practice. GP practices cannot provide proof of COVID vaccine.

Preventing risk while travelling

Vaccines or anti-malarial tablets will not protect against all travel health risks. This means you’ll need to take extra steps to protect your health whilst travelling abroad.

The fitfortravel website has further advice on preventing health risks whilst travelling. This includes information on:

• general travel advice
• disease prevention

Travelling abroad to visit friends and relatives

If you’re travelling abroad to visit friends or relatives, you may be at higher risk of developing travel-related illnesses. For example, malaria or typhoid. This could be because:

• you may be living with the local community
• your trip might be longer than the average holiday
• you might be visiting more rural areas where it’s difficult to take precautions that reduce your risk

The fitfortravel website provides information and advice on visiting friends and family abroad .

Travel safety advice

You can find country-specific safety and security advice through the UK government website .

Travel insurance advice

Many countries don’t have the same access to medical treatments as the UK and can be expensive.

It’s recommended that all travellers get comprehensive travel insurance before travelling.

When you return home

If you become unwell and/or develop a fever when you return home, it’s important to get medical advice as soon as possible. You should seek medical help even if it’s up to 1 month after you’ve been travelling.

Always make sure you tell the health professional that you’ve recently travelled abroad. This is especially important if you have been to a country where malaria is a risk.

Donating blood after travelling abroad

Travel outside the UK can affect whether you can give blood donations. This is because some infections may be caught abroad. This is usually through mosquito or other insect bites.

There are conditions for donating blood if you’ve been to certain countries. This can depend on your length of stay and some other factors.

Further information on donating blood after travelling abroad

Source: Public Health Scotland - Opens in new browser window

Last updated: 01 March 2024

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Travel health advice.

• Before You Travel
• Yellow Fever

Current popular advice pages:

• Staying Healthy if Travelling Abroad this Summer
• Travelling Abroad to Attend Festivals and Other Gatherings
• Mosquito Bite Avoidance
• Food and Water Precautions

Travel Vaccinations

If you’re planning to travel outside the UK, you may need to be vaccinated against some of the serious diseases found in other parts of the world.

Vaccinations are available to protect you against infections such as  yellow fever ,  typhoid  and  hepatitis A .

In the UK, the  NHS routine immunisation (vaccination) schedule  protects you against a number of diseases, but does not cover all of the infectious diseases found overseas.

If possible, see the GP or a private travel clinic at least 8 weeks before you’re due to travel.

Some vaccines need to be given well in advance to allow your body to develop immunity.

And some vaccines involve a number of doses spread over several weeks or months.

You may be more at risk of some diseases, for example, if you’re:

• travelling in rural areas
• backpacking
• staying in hostels or camping
• on a long trip rather than a package holiday

If you have a pre-existing health problem, this may make you more at risk of infection or complications from a travel-related illness.

You can find out which vaccinations are necessary or recommended for the areas you’ll be visiting on these websites:

• Travel Health Pro
• NHS Fit for Travel

Some countries require proof of vaccination (for example, for polio or yellow fever vaccination), which must be documented on an International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (ICVP) before you enter or when you leave a country.

Saudi Arabia requires proof of vaccination against certain types of  meningitis  for visitors arriving for the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages.

Even if an ICVP is not required, it’s still a good idea to take a record of the vaccinations you have had with you.

Find out more about the vaccines available for travellers abroad

First, phone or visit the GP practice or practice nurse to find out whether your existing UK vaccinations are up-to-date.

If you have any records of your vaccinations, let the GP know what you have had previously.

You should also ask if the GP practice is signed up to provide free NHS vaccinations for travel, as not all GP practices are.

If the GP practice does not provide NHS vaccinations for travel, you can try a:

• private travel vaccination clinic
• pharmacy offering travel healthcare services

The GP or practice nurse may be able to give you general advice about travel vaccinations and travel health, such as protecting yourself from malaria.

They can give you any missing doses of your UK vaccines if you need them.

Not all travel vaccinations are available free on the NHS, even if they’re recommended for travel to a certain area.

If the GP practice is signed up to provide NHS travel vaccines, these can be provided to you free of charge.

Other non-NHS travel vaccines may be charged for by the GP.

If the GP practice can give you the travel vaccines you need but they are not available on the NHS, ask for:

• written information on what vaccines are needed
• the cost of each dose or course
• any other charges you may have to pay, such as for some certificates of vaccination

The following travel vaccines are available free on the NHS if your GP practice is signed up to provide vaccination (immunisation) services.

• polio (given as a  combined diphtheria/tetanus/polio jab )
• hepatitis A

These vaccines are free because they protect against diseases thought to represent the greatest risk to public health if they were brought into the country.

You’ll have to pay for travel vaccinations against:

• hepatitis B
• Japanese encephalitis
• meningitis vaccines
• tick-borne encephalitis
• tuberculosis (TB)
• yellow fever

Yellow fever vaccines are only available from  designated centres .

The cost of travel vaccines that are not available on the NHS will vary, depending on the vaccine and number of doses you need.

It’s worth considering this when budgeting for your trip.

There are other things to consider when planning your travel vaccinations, including:

• your age and health – you may be more vulnerable to infection than others; some vaccines cannot be given to people with certain medical conditions
• working as an aid worker – you may come into contact with more diseases in a refugee camp or helping after a natural disaster
• working in a medical setting – a doctor, nurse or another healthcare worker may require additional vaccinations
• contact with animals – you may be more at risk of getting diseases spread by animals, such as rabies

If you’re only travelling to countries in northern and central Europe, North America or Australia, you’re unlikely to need any vaccinations.

But it’s important to check that you’re up-to-date with routine vaccinations available on the NHS.

Speak to a GP before having any vaccinations if:

• you’re pregnant
• you think you might be pregnant
• you’re breastfeeding

In many cases, it’s unlikely a vaccine given while you’re pregnant or breastfeeding will cause problems for the baby.

But the GP will be able to give you further advice about this.

For some people travelling overseas, vaccination against certain diseases may not be advised.

This may be the case if:

• you have a condition that affects your body’s immune system, such as  HIV or AIDS
• you’re receiving treatment that affects your immune system, such as  chemotherapy
• you have recently had a bone marrow or organ transplant

A GP can give you further advice about this.

As well as getting any travel vaccinations you need, it’s also a good opportunity to make sure your other UK vaccinations are up-to-date and have booster vaccines if necessary.

People in certain risk groups may be offered extra vaccines.

These include vaccinations against diseases such as:

Read more information on  NHS vaccines  for adults and children to find out whether you should have any.

Travel vaccines

On this page.

You can get vaccinations for international travel at local community pharmacies.

What is a travel health service?

If you are planning to travel outside the UK your travel health needs will depend on your individual situation and the following considerations:

• your general health
• where you are travelling to
• where you will be staying
• how long you will be staying
• what you will be doing throughout your trip

Lots of useful travel health information is available online at Fit for Travel , provided by NHS Scotland. It is important that you read through the information available here, before arranging a travel consultation with the community pharmacy NHS Highland Travel Health Service.

Travel Health Service at community pharmacies

The NHS Highland Travel Health Service will provide you with all of the information that you require to keep yourself and your family safe. 

Listed below are the community pharmacies across Highland that provide this specialist NHS travel health service. While this new service gets up and running some GP practices may still be offering travel vaccines to their registered patients.

Once you have read through the information on Fit for Travel , you may require an assessment, further advice and vaccinations before you travel.

Please contact any of the participating community pharmacies to agree a suitable appointment for your consultation to allow them to complete a full travel risk assessment. Travel health appointments should ideally take place 8 weeks before you intend on travelling to ensure any vaccinations provided take full effect before your trip.

• Alness - Alness Pharmacy
• Beauly - Your Local Boots Pharmacy
• Campbeltown (Longrow South) - Your Local Boots Pharmacy
• Conon Bridge - Conon Bridge Pharmacy  
• Dingwall - Dingwall Pharmacy
• Dornoch - Mitchells Chemist
• Fort Augustus - Fort Augustus Pharmacy
• Helensburgh - Rowlands Pharmacy
• Inverness - Care Pharmacy (Cradlehall)
• Inverness - Dalneigh Pharmacy
• Inverness - Lochardil Pharmacy
• Inverness - Rowlands Pharmacy (Balloan Park)
• Inverness  - Superdrug  
• Kyle of Lochalsh - Right Medicine Pharmacy
• Lochgilphead - Truhealth
• Muir of Ord - Right Medicine Pharmacy
• Newtonmore - Strathspey Pharmacy
• Spean Bridge  - MhorHealth Pharmacy
• Tornagrain - Tornagrain Pharmacy

Map of pharmacies providing travel vaccines

What travel vaccines are provided for free by the NHS?

The following travel vaccines continue to be available free on the NHS to citizens living in Scotland for the purpose of travel:

• hepatitis A
• diptheria, polio, tetanus (administered as a combined vaccine)

The above vaccines are free as they protect against diseases that are considered to present the greatest risk to public health if they were to be brought into the country.

What can I expect when I attend the community pharmacy?

You will receive your consultation in a private room which is fit for purpose.

The pharmacist will ask about your travel plans, which countries you are travelling to, rural or city sites, what time of year?

You will be asked about your previous vaccination history. If you have a vaccination card please take it with you.

The pharmacist will ask about your current and previous health concerns. If you have a repeat medication list, please take it with you.

The pharmacist will advise you on what vaccinations you require, which ones are provided free on the NHS and which ones you will have to pay for. They will also advise on whether you need to take tablets to help prevent you getting malaria.

The pharmacist will give you advice on other travel health issues and will give you a leaflet or a web address where you can find out more information.

If you require vaccination then the pharmacist can give you your vaccination there on the day or they may have to order the vaccine in which case they will arrange another appointment that suits you. They will advise you on any side effects and what you can do to reduce them.

The pharmacist will record all of the vaccinations they give you and this will be entered into your GP notes.

If you need to pay for any vaccines, you will need to pay the pharmacist at the time you get your vaccination.

Also available:

• portable hearing loops
• a quiet space/room
• all sites have access to language interpretation support

Important: Share your COVID Status when travelling internationally

Download the NHS Scotland COVID Status app.

Your COVID Status (or COVID passport) contains details of your vaccination record.

Immunisation and vaccines

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The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine is also known as the PPV, pneumococcal or 'pneumo' vaccine.

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Vaccinations available for babies, pre-school children and young people from 11 years.

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NHS Scotland recommends all eligible children should get the vaccine to help protect them from influenza (flu).

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Booster vaccines added to NHS Covid Pass for travel

• Published 19 November 2021
• Coronavirus

Travellers who have had a booster dose of a Covid jab in England are now able to prove their vaccination status using the NHS Covid Pass.

It enables quarantine-free travel to countries such as Israel, Croatia and Austria, which have a time limit for vaccination status to be valid.

Third doses are not being added to the domestic pass as they are not currently needed to qualify as fully vaccinated.

Last week booster jabs were extended to all over-40s in the UK .

Booster doses were initially offered to over-50s, front-line health and social care staff and people with health conditions that put them at greater risk from the virus.

More than 13 million booster jabs have been administered in the UK so far.

• Who needs a Covid passport and how do I get one?
• How can over 40s get a Covid booster?
• What tests and jabs do I need to travel abroad?

People can already prove whether they have had a first or second dose, a recent negative test or recently recovered from the virus using the NHS App .

The NHS Covid Pass is used for travel, as well as for entry to some domestic venues which require it. It will not be necessary to show proof of a booster to travel to England.

In England, it is not currently mandatory to show proof of vaccination for any venues. However, it is compulsory for nightclubs and large events in Scotland and cinemas, theatres, nightclubs and large events in Wales.

The Northern Ireland executive has also voted to introduce mandatory Covid passports in venues like nightclubs and cinemas.

Booster jabs now show up automatically for users of the digital Covid pass in England, as of midday on Friday, but the information is not immediately available via the Covid Pass letter service.

The government said this would be updated in due course.

Boosters will appear on the Covid Pass in Wales from 29 November. However, evidence of a third dose is not needed to enter venues in Wales which require a Covid Pass.

Tim Alderslade, chief executive of Airlines UK welcomed the move, saying ensuring travel is as "straightforward as possible is vital".

"However, we still have a way to go to return to pre-pandemic levels of demand," he added.

Paul Charles, chief executive of travel consultancy The PC Agency, said the development was "a major step forward", boosting confidence for people to book trips over the Christmas period.

However, he said the government must "urgently" update the app so teenagers can also prove their vaccination status.

Health Secretary Sajid Javid said: "We want to make it as easy as possible for people to show their vaccine status if they are travelling abroad.

"This update to the NHS Covid Pass will mean people can have their complete medical picture at their fingertips if they are going on holiday or seeing loved ones overseas."

Vaccines minister Maggie Throup urged people to get their booster as soon as they were eligible, saying it was "the best way you can protect yourself ahead of winter".

Results from a UK trial of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine found a booster increased protection against symptomatic disease to nearly 95% in those aged 50 and above.

As well as boosters, some people with severely suppressed immune systems are being given a third primary jab as part of their basic vaccination - and they may also be offered a booster at a later date.

Related Topics

• Coronavirus vaccines
• Covid passports

More on this story

Covid booster doses will be offered to over-40s

• Published 15 November 2021

Covid booster jab bookings open earlier in England

• Published 6 November 2021

Where do I need to use a Covid passport?

• Published 28 February 2022

Will complacency damage Covid booster rollout?

• Published 3 November 2021

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Need travel vaccines? Plan ahead.

International travel increases your chances of getting and spreading diseases that are rare or not found in United States. Find out which travel vaccines you may need to help you stay healthy on your trip.

Before Travel

Make sure you are up-to-date on all of your routine vaccines . Routine vaccinations protect you from infectious diseases such as measles that can spread quickly in groups of unvaccinated people. Many diseases prevented by routine vaccination are not common in the United States but are still common in other countries.

Check CDC’s destination pages for travel health information . Check CDC’s webpage for your destination to see what vaccines or medicines you may need and what diseases or health risks are a concern at your destination.

Make an appointment with your healthcare provider or a travel health specialist  that takes place at least one month before you leave. They can help you get destination-specific vaccines, medicines, and information. Discussing your health concerns, itinerary, and planned activities with your provider allows them to give more specific advice and recommendations.

Because some vaccines require multiple doses, it’s best to see your health care provider as soon as possible.

Medicines to prevent malaria are pills that you start to take before travel. Take recommended medicines as directed. If your health care provider prescribes medicine for you, take the medicine as directed before, during, and after travel. 

Where can I get travel vaccines?

You may be able to get some travel vaccines from your primary healthcare provider. If you or your healthcare provider need help finding a location that provides certain vaccines or medicines, visit CDC’s Find a Clinic page.

If yellow fever vaccine is recommended or required for your destination, you’ll need to go to a vaccine center authorized to give yellow fever vaccinations. Many yellow fever vaccine centers also provide other pre-travel health care services. Find an  authorized US yellow fever vaccine center .

Examples of Vaccines

Here is a list of possible vaccines that you may need to get for the first time or boosters before you travel.

• Cholera 
• Flu (Influenza)
• Hepatitis A   
• Hepatitis B   
• Japanese encephalitis   
• MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella)
• Meningococcal   
• Pneumococcal   
• Polio   
• Rabies   
• Tdap (Tetanus, Diphtheria, Pertussis)
• Typhoid   
• Yellow fever

More Information

CDC Yellow Book: Travel Vaccine Summary Table

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Vaccinations National Booking Service

We're providing systems that enable people to book appointments at sites across England.

If you have received a letter inviting you to book an appointment, go to the Book a coronavirus vaccination service

About this service

We're providing systems that enable people to book appointments across England.

The Vaccinations National Booking Service is made up of:

• an online booking service available to the public on the NHS website to book a coronavirus (COVID-19) vaccination appointment
• an online booking service available to the public on the NHS website to book or manage a free NHS flu vaccination at a pharmacy
• an appointment management system for staff working at vaccination centres and community pharmacies offering coronavirus and flu vaccinations - Q-Flow
• an app for checking people into their appointments when they arrive at vaccination sites - the Check a vaccination appointment service (Check-In App)
• a training tool for 119 agents to familiarise themselves with the various booking journeys so they can support the public

NHS App users can also book or manage a coronavirus (COVID-19) vaccination appointment.

There is also a telephone service, 119, for people who cannot or do not want to use the online booking service. NHS England runs this. The phoneline operators use the Book a coronavirus vaccination service on behalf of callers.

Other local solutions are in place, in addition to the Vaccinations National Booking Service, to enable hospital hubs and primary care networks to offer appointments to patients. 

Primary care networks can choose from an assured selection of appointment management systems through the Digital Care Services Framework (GP IT Futures).

Online booking service to book a coronavirus (COVID-19) vaccination appointment

The coronavirus vaccination booking service will accept appointment bookings from people who have received a notification from the NHS, through the national service by text or letter, asking them to book. People who have not received a notification may also be eligible to book using the service.

The service accepts bookings from eligible people registered with a GP in England. 

Users provide their NHS number which is used to check they are eligible, and helps ensure that information about their vaccination is saved to their medical records. Those without an NHS number can be vaccinated at walk-in sites .

Users can book first, second doses, and booster appointments, as recommended by the Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation  (JCVI).

The service sends users a booking confirmation, by text message or email, which they take to the vaccination centre when they go to their appointment.

The service also allows people to cancel and re-book their appointments if they need to.

Online booking service to book a free NHS flu vaccination at a pharmacy

The flu vaccination booking service will accept appointment bookings from people who have received a notification from the NHS, through the national service by text or letter, asking them to book. People who have not received a notification may also be eligible to book using the service.

The service accepts bookings from eligible people that are registered with a GP in England. 

Users provide their NHS number, which is used to check they are eligible, and helps ensure that information about their vaccination is saved to their medical records.

Users can book an appointment for the current season of flu vaccination.

Q-Flow appointment management system

Q-Flow is used by staff working at the sites offering vaccinations. It is linked to the online booking service. Users are assigned to a user group within Q-Flow, which determines their permissions and the tasks they can perform. 

Following assurance and confirmation of completion of readiness assessments, NHS Digital will create the site in the Vaccinations National Booking Service and create a Q-Flow user account for the lead IT admin (site manager user). Site manager users will then be able to set up site attributes and schedule appointments in Q-Flow, to allow patients to book via the National Booking Service. 

Staff can also use Q-Flow to edit appointment availability, and view and manage booked appointments.

Q-Flow guidance

How to use Q-Flow, the appointment management system that interacts with the National Booking Service, enabling people to book vaccinations at vaccination centres.

Check a vaccination appointment service (Check-In app)

Check a vaccination appointment service (Check-In app) is a separate app to Q-Flow and allows sites to check patients in. 

When someone arrives at a vaccination centre for their booked appointment, staff who have been authorised to use the Check-In app will:

• Search for the appointment on the system using the booking reference or name and date of birth.
• Confirm whether the person attending the appointment is eligible to be vaccinated.
• Check the citizen into the appointment if appropriate

Guidance for arrival stewards and assessment clinicians

Arrival stewards and assessment clinicians use this app to view details of a patient’s appointment and check them in to the site.

119 training tool

A training tool for 119 call agents working on the NHS COVID-19 vaccine booking service, to familiarise themselves with the various booking journeys so they can support the public.

More information and guidance on the service . 

NHS App users

People who use the NHS App can also book or manage a coronavirus (COVID-19) vaccination appointment. A menu option displayed within the app provides the same online coronavirus (COVID-19) booking service but uses the login credentials already given when logging into the NHS App.

You must be logged in to the NHS App to use this feature.

Related pages

National Booking Service - training and onboarding

Training and onboarding information for the National Booking Service (NBS).

Last edited: 17 January 2024 2:28 pm

Get Vaccinated Before You Travel

It’s important to plan ahead to get the shots required for all countries you and your family plan to visit.

Protect your child and family when traveling in the United States or abroad by:

• Getting the shots required for all countries you and your family plan to visit during your trip
• Making sure you and your family are up-to-date on all routine U.S. vaccines
• Staying informed about travel notices and alerts and how they can affect your family’s travel plans

Avoid getting sick or coming back home and spreading the disease to others.

Vaccinate at least a month before you travel

See your doctor when you start to plan your trip abroad. It’s important to do this well in advance.

• Your body needs time to build up immunity.
• You may need several weeks to get all the doses of the vaccine.
• Your primary doctor may not stock travel vaccines. Visit a travel medical clinic .
• You’ll need time to prepare for your pre-travel appointment .
• If the country you visit requires a yellow fever vaccine , only a limited number of clinics have the vaccine and will probably be some distance from where you live. You must get it at least 10 days before travel.

Find out which vaccines are recommended or required for the countries you plan to visit .

TIP : Save time by getting routine vaccines during the same doctor visit. Use the Vaccine Self-Assessment Tool and discuss the results with your doctor. It tells you which U.S. recommended vaccines you (19 years and older) or your child (birth – 18 years) might need.

Last-minute travelers

When traveling to another country be aware your doctor may not carry a travel vaccine and you may have to visit a medical clinic.

Many travel vaccines require multiple shots or take time to become fully effective. But some multiple-dose vaccines (like hepatitis A) can still give you partial protection after just one dose. Some can also be given on an “accelerated schedule,” meaning doses are given in a shorter period of time.

• Discover and learn about specific diseases that can affect you while traveling
• What to do if you get sick after traveling
• Vaccines & Immunizations

Exit Notification / Disclaimer Policy

• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.
• Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.
• You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.
• CDC is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private website.

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Hepatitis A vaccine

Peer reviewed by Dr Colin Tidy, MRCGP Last updated by Dr Hayley Willacy, FRCGP Last updated 15 Feb 2023

Meets Patient’s editorial guidelines

In this series: Travel vaccinations Hepatitis B vaccine Rabies vaccine Tick-borne encephalitis vaccine Typhoid vaccine Yellow fever vaccine

You should consider vaccination against hepatitis A before you travel to certain countries, such as the Indian subcontinent.

In this article :

What is hepatitis a, who should be immunised against hepatitis a, are there any side-effects from the hepatitis a vaccine, who should not receive hepatitis a vaccine, other points.

Check with your practice nurse at least two weeks before you travel to see if you should have this vaccination.

Continue reading below

Hepatitis A is an illness caused by the hepatitis A virus. The virus mainly causes inflammation of the liver. Symptoms include:

Generally feeling unwell.

Yellowing of your skin or the whites of your eyes ( jaundice ).

Sometimes, being sick (vomiting).

A raised temperature (fever).

However, some people who are infected do not develop any symptoms (a subclinical illness). The illness is not usually serious and full recovery is usual but the symptoms can be quite unpleasant for a while. The hepatitis A virus is passed out in the stools (faeces) of infected people and infection is usually spread by eating dirty (contaminated) food or drink.

Hepatitis A infection can occur in the UK but it is more common in countries where there is poor sanitation or where disposal of sewage is poor. In the UK, most cases of hepatitis A are seen in people who have recently returned after travelling to such countries. If you catch hepatitis A, the illness is not usually serious but it may ruin a holiday or business trip. See the separate leaflet called Hepatitis A for more details .

This leaflet is just about vaccination to help prevent hepatitis A infection.

Travellers to countries outside Western Europe, North America and Australasia should consider being immunised. The highest-risk areas include the Indian subcontinent (in particular India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal), Africa, parts of the Far East (except Japan), South and Central America and the Middle East. Vaccination is generally recommended for anyone over the age of 1 year. Your doctor or practice nurse can advise if you should be immunised against hepatitis A for your travel destination.

You can find out if immunisation against hepatitis A is recommended for any countries you are planning to visit from the NHS website Fitfortravel.

Close contacts of someone with hepatitis A

Occasional outbreaks of hepatitis A occur in the UK within families or in institutions. Close contacts of someone found to have hepatitis A infection (for example, family members or other members of the institution) may be offered vaccination. This only happens rarely. The most important measure for anybody with hepatitis A is good personal hygiene. In particular, washing hands after going to the toilet or before eating.

People with chronic liver disease

If you have a persistent (chronic) liver disease (for example, cirrhosis ) it is suggested that you have the hepatitis A vaccine. Hepatitis A infection is not more common in those with chronic liver disease but, if infection does occur, it can cause a more serious illness.

People exposed to hepatitis A at work

For example, laboratory workers who are exposed to hepatitis A during their work and sewage workers are advised to be immunised against hepatitis A.

Staff of some large residential institutions

Outbreaks of hepatitis A have been associated with large residential institutions for people with learning difficulties, where standards of personal hygiene among clients or patients may be poor. Therefore, vaccination of staff and residents of some institutions may be recommended.

Injecting drug users

Drug users who share drug injecting equipment are also thought to have an increased risk of hepatitis A infection and so should consider vaccination.

People with blood clotting problems

If someone has certain blood clotting problems (such as haemophilia) and needs to receive blood clotting factors, they may have an increased risk of hepatitis A infection. This is because the hepatitis A virus may not be completely destroyed during the preparation of these blood products. Vaccination is therefore suggested for these people.

Oral-anal contact

Men who have sex with men, and other people whose sexual practices involve oral-anal contact, may also like to consider vaccination against hepatitis A.

Note : if you have been infected with hepatitis A in the past, you should be immune to further infection and therefore not need vaccination. A blood test can detect antibodies to check if you are already immune. This may be worthwhile doing if you have had a history of yellowing of your skin or the whites of your eyes (jaundice) or come from an area where hepatitis A is common.

There are a number of different hepatitis A vaccines available. Some just protect against hepatitis A, but there are also some combined vaccines for both hepatitis A and hepatitis B or hepatitis A and typhoid fever . A combined vaccine may be useful if you require protection against both diseases.

The hepatitis A single vaccine is given as two doses. The first dose of the vaccine protects against hepatitis A for about one year. The vaccine causes your body to make antibodies against the virus. These antibodies protect you from illness should you become infected with this virus. Ideally, you should have an injection at least two weeks before travel to allow immunity to develop. However, the vaccine may still be advised even if there is less than two weeks before you travel.

How long does a hepatitis A vaccine last?

A second dose of the vaccine 6-12 months after the first gives protection for about 20 years. If you are late with this second dose, you should have it as soon as possible but you don't need to start with the first dose again. Another booster dose of hepatitis A vaccine after 20 years can be given to those people still at risk of infection.

The doses of the combined vaccines against both hepatitis A and hepatitis B or hepatitis A and typhoid may need to be given at slightly different time intervals. Your doctor or practice nurse will be able to advise you in detail.

Some people develop a temporary soreness and redness at the injection site. Much less common are:

A mild raised temperature (fever).

Feeling sick (nauseated).

Feeling off your food for a few days.

Severe reactions are extremely rare.

There are a very few situations where the hepatitis A vaccine is not recommended. They include:

If you have an illness causing a high temperature. In this situation, it is best to postpone vaccination until after you have fully recovered from the illness.

If you have had an allergic reaction to the vaccine or to any of its components in the past.

One type of vaccine (Epaxal®) should not be given to anyone who is known to be allergic to eggs.

Children under the age of 1 year. However, the risk of hepatitis A in children under the age of 1 year is very low. The hepatitis A vaccine is not licensed for this age group.

The vaccine may be given if you are pregnant or breastfeeding and vaccination against hepatitis A is thought to be necessary.

Remember - vaccination for travellers is only one aspect of preventing illness. No vaccination is 100% effective. So when travelling to at-risk areas, you should have very good personal hygiene and also be careful about what you eat and drink.

You should avoid eating and drinking the following when travelling to areas where the risk of hepatitis A is higher:

Raw or inadequately cooked shellfish .

Raw salads and vegetables that may have been washed in unclean (contaminated) water. (Wash fruit and vegetables in safe water and peel them yourself.)

Other foods that may have been grown close to the ground , such as strawberries.

Untreated drinking water, including ice cubes made from untreated water. (Remember also to use only treated or bottled water when brushing your teeth.)

Unpasteurised milk, cheese, ice cream and other dairy products.

Also, be careful when buying food from street traders. Make sure that food has been recently prepared and that it is served hot and on clean serving plates. Food that has been left out at room temperature (for example, for a buffet) or food that may have been exposed to flies could also pose a risk.

Further reading and references

• Travel Health Pro ; National Travel Health Network and Centre (NaTHNaC)
• Immunisation against infectious disease - the Green Book (latest edition) ; UK Health Security Agency.
• Travellers' Health ; US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• Travel and Diabetes ; Diabetes UK

Article History

The information on this page is written and peer reviewed by qualified clinicians.

Next review due: 14 Feb 2028

15 feb 2023 | latest version.

Last updated by

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Blog UK Health Security Agency

https://ukhsa.blog.gov.uk/2024/04/16/whos-eligible-for-the-2024-covid-19-vaccine-or-spring-booster/

Who’s eligible for the 2024 COVID-19 vaccine, or ‘Spring Booster’?

As we move into spring, protection from any earlier COVID-19 vaccination you may have had will be starting to wane. For those who are more likely to become seriously ill from COVID-19, the NHS offers a free vaccine in the spring to top up their protection, previously known as the ‘Spring Booster’.

Current vaccines provide good protection against severe disease and hospitalisation. UKHSA surveillance data relating to last spring’s programme shows that those who received a vaccine were around 50% less likely to be admitted to hospital with COVID-19 from 2 weeks following vaccination, compared to those who remained unvaccinated.

According to World Health Organization data , 400,000 lives in England are estimated to have been saved up to March 2023 due to the COVID-19 vaccine programme.

Are you eligible to top up your COVID-19 protection this spring?

While you might have received your COVID-19 vaccine during winter or in past ‘Spring Booster’ campaigns, the criteria for this year’s spring vaccine have changed slightly:

• Adults aged 75 years and over.
• Residents in a care home for older adults.
• Individuals aged 6 months and over who have a weakened immune system.

As you can see, the criteria are similar to the spring 2022 and spring 2023 booster campaigns, but this year the criteria for the immunosuppressed group has lowered to include those 6 months and over.

The eligibility is the same across the four nations of the UK (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland).

Let’s explain the age-based criteria

Those who are aged 75 and over can come forward to top up their protection this spring. If you are 74 but turn 75 years old by 30 June 2024, you don’t have to wait for your birthday to come forward.

What about residents, and staff in care homes?

Those who are a resident in care homes for older adults are also eligible. Carers and staff in care homes are not eligible, this is because the spring vaccine is targeted towards providing protection to those most vulnerable to severe disease.

I have a weakened immune system, am I eligible this spring?

We understand that having a weakened immune system (immunosuppression) is a lot less straight forward than the other criteria. Looking online can cause even more confusion, as people might see themselves (and be considered by others) as immunosuppressed but might not fit the immunosuppression criteria for vaccination.

So, what are the immunosuppression criteria? Eligibility is outlined in Chapter 14a of the Green Book , a document published by UKHSA specifically for public health professionals. It can be a complicated document for non-experts, so we've listed some of the groups here:

• Organ, bone marrow or stem cell transplant patients.
• Those being treated with systemic steroids for more than a month.
• Those living with HIV.
• Those receiving immunosuppressive or immunomodulating biological therapy, including children who are about to receive therapy.
• Those undergoing chemotherapy or radiotherapy.
• Those who require long-term treatment for immunosuppression
• Those with a history of haematological malignancy including chronic leukaemia, lymphomas, and leukaemia.
• Those with genetic disorders affecting the immune system.

While this list summarises some major groups, it does not cover everything. Please check online at nhs.uk/get-vaccine to see if you are eligible.

How do I get my spring COVID-19 vaccine?

You should come forward rather than waiting for the NHS to contact you this year. You will be able to book your vaccine online at nhs.uk/get-vaccine from 15 April 2024. If you or someone you know can’t get online, book by calling 119 free of charge, where a translator is available if needed.

While having your spring vaccine around 6 months after your last dose is the usual timeframe, you can have it as soon as 3 months after a previous COVID-19 vaccine dose. If you are eligible, you can get protection from a spring COVID-19 vaccination even if you have not taken up a COVID-19 vaccine offer in the past. Most people do not need extra vaccinations to make up for any they have missed, but your doctor may advise a further dose if you have a severely weakened immune system.

It is important that everyone who is eligible takes up the offer this spring before the vaccination programme closes on 30 June 2024.

You may also be interested in:

• Should we be worried about the new COVID-19 variant?

Tags: COVID-19 , vaccination

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• Who’s eligible for the 2024 COVID-19 vaccine, or ‘Spring Booster’? 16 April 2024
• What is whooping cough and how can I prevent my children catching it? 12 April 2024
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NHS urges parents in the Midlands to get lifesaving routine vaccines for their children such as the MMR, HPV and whooping cough.

This World Immunisation Week health leaders in the Midlands are urging parents and carers to check their children are up to date with their essential childhood vaccinations, and book any that have been missed. Essential, routine vaccinations like measles, mumps and rubella (MMR), human papillomavirus (HPV) and the whooping cough vaccine can save a child’s life.

Since January, the NHS with UKHSA and local authorities have been urging over a million parents and carers of six- to 11-year-olds to book their children in for missed MMR vaccinations to protect children and young people from becoming seriously unwell. Between Jan – March 2024, over 360,000 MMR vaccinations were delivered, up almost a quarter from 293,847 in 2023, but more still needs to be done. More than 20 million cases of measles have been prevented since the start of measles vaccination in the UK, and more than 4,500 lives saved as a result of the vaccine which has been used since 1980s. (source UKHSA)

Throughout February and March over a million children and young adults aged 11 to 25 years living in London, the West Midlands and Greater Manchester were also encouraged to book an appointment, with these areas most at risk due to the number of people not up to date on their MMR vaccinations. The latest figures from UKHSA show there have been over 930 confirmed cases of measles in England since 1 October 2023.

The HPV vaccine is 97% effective in protecting against infection from some of the highest risk types of HPV (a group of viruses which can affect boys and girls) helping prevent HPV related cancers from developing. The vaccine is very effective and NHS England believes it will play its part in eliminating cervical cancer by 2040.

Over 42,800 girls and 45,800 boys in the Midlands in year eight have had one dose of the HPV vaccine in the last 12 months. Girls and boys aged 12 to 13 years (in year 8) are routinely offered the HPV vaccine through school aged immunisation services. These are mainly given either in schools or community clinic.

Whooping cough cases are rising and babies who are too young to start their vaccinations are at greatest risk (553 new cases were confirmed in England during January 2024, compared with 858 cases for the whole of 2023). If you are pregnant, you can help protect your baby by getting vaccinated – ideally from 16 weeks up to 32 weeks pregnant. The immunity you get from the vaccine passes to your baby through the placenta and protects them until they are old enough to be vaccinated at 8 weeks old.

Young babies with whooping cough are often very unwell and many are likely to need hospital treatment as it can lead to serious complications.

If you are more than 16 weeks pregnant and have not been offered the vaccine, you can talk to your midwife or GP and make an appointment to get vaccinated.

Julia Grace, NHS Deputy Director of Vaccinations and Screening in the Midlands said “It is really important to protect your children as soon as possible and take them for their vaccinations when invited. If you or your family have fallen behind on any, then we encourage you to come forward as soon as possible, please don’t delay it.

Measles is a very serious illness and everyone who is still unprotected is at risk. We have pop-up vaccination clinics running in some of the most at-risk areas making it easier and more convenient to receive the vaccine in addition to booking through your GP. Anyone who has missed out on their HPV vaccination can still catch up until their 25th birthday (for girls born after 1 September 1991 and boys born after 1 September 2006), and the whooping cough vaccination in pregnancy is extremely safe and has been used in pregnancy for over 10 years. If for any reason you have missed yours, you can still have it up until the end of pregnancy.

If you or your child have fallen behind on any vaccinations, you should contact your GP practice to book an appointment. Remember it is never too late to catch up on missed vaccinations.”

NHS vaccination schedule

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Monthly report on NHS Sickness absence rates by regions, organisations and main staff groups.

https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/nhs-sickness-absence-rates/december-2023

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NHS reminds expectant mothers of importance of whooping cough vaccination

The highly contagious bacterial infection can have potentially severe consequences, particularly for newborns

• 15:42, 24 APR 2024

In a bid to protect the health of expectant mothers and their unborn children, the NHS is reminding people of the importance of whooping cough vaccination during pregnancy.

Whooping cough (pertussis) rates have risen sharply in recent years and babies who are too young to start their vaccinations are at the greatest risk.

Whooping cough is characterised by uncontrollable, violent coughing fits.

It poses a significant risk to newborns, who are particularly vulnerable to its effects, often leading to hospitalisation and, in severe cases, even death.

Vaccination remains the most effective means of prevention against this disease.

Potentially dangerous infection

Pregnant women can help protect their babies by getting vaccinated – ideally from 16 weeks up to 32 weeks pregnant.

If for any reason you miss having the vaccine, you can still have it up until you go into labour.

By receiving the vaccine during pregnancy, mothers pass on protective antibodies to their unborn babies, offering them crucial immunity during the vulnerable first few weeks of life when they are too young to receive the vaccine themselves.

Dr Sarah Johnson, a leading obstetrician and spokesperson for the NHS, emphasised the importance of this preventive measure.

She said: "Whooping cough can be a serious illness, particularly for young infants.

"By vaccinating expectant mothers, we can help protect both mothers and their babies from this potentially dangerous infection."

Protection for you and your baby

The NHS guidelines align with recommendations from the World Health Organization (WHO) and other global health authorities, which advocate for routine whooping cough vaccination during pregnancy as part of a comprehensive strategy to control the spread of the disease.

Pertussis-containing vaccine (whooping cough vaccine) has been used routinely in pregnant women in the UK since October 2012, and the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) is carefully monitoring its safety.

Dr Johnson added: "Extensive research and real-world data have demonstrated that the whooping cough vaccine is safe for both expectant mothers and their babies.

"The benefits of vaccination far outweigh any potential risks."

Highly effective

The NHS is also working to raise awareness among healthcare providers about the importance of offering the whooping cough vaccine to pregnant women during routine prenatal care visits.

This proactive approach aims to ensure widespread access to vaccination and maximise protection for mothers and their infants.

Public health experts welcome the NHS guidelines, viewing them as a positive step toward reducing the burden of whooping cough and safeguarding the health of vulnerable people.

Professor David Patel, a specialist in infectious diseases, commended the initiative.

He said: "Vaccination during pregnancy is a highly effective strategy for preventing whooping cough in newborns.

"These updated guidelines will undoubtedly contribute to improved maternal and infant health outcomes."

A healthier start for newborns

The emphasis on whooping cough vaccination during pregnancy underscores the NHS commitment to promoting maternal and infant health.

By increasing awareness of the vaccination, the NHS aims to mitigate the impact of whooping cough and ensure a healthier start for newborns across the country.

Speak to your midwife to get your whooping cough vaccination. For further information about vaccinations in pregnancy, see www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/keeping-well/vaccinations

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British railways under Tories are symbol of national decline, says Labour

Party plans to nationalise network and ‘unlock the trapped potential’ of rail to drive economic growth across the country

Britain’s railways have become a “symbol of national decline” under the Conservatives, the shadow transport secretary has said, announcing Labour’s plans to nationalise the rail network within five years in government.

In a speech at Trainline headquarters on Thursday, Louise Haigh said “today’s broken model simply doesn’t work”, with train cancellations at a record high and fares having risen almost twice as fast as wages since 2010.

Jody Ford, the chief executive of the travel company, echoed Haigh’s words, saying rail had “significant power and potential” to drive economic growth into all parts of the country’s communities.

Haigh said: “Our railways are critical to making our country a better, wealthier and happier place. We can only achieve our five national missions if we unlock the trapped potential of our railways to boost growth, and opportunity and to connect all of us with each other, with work and with pleasure.”

Haigh said a Labour government would establish Great British Railways, which she described as a “single directing mind to control our railways in the passenger interest”. She joked she was not allowed to call the nationalised railway “Rail Britannia” and would not rule out an endorsement of her plan from the Conservative former transport secretary Grant Shapps.

Asked why Labour could not guarantee cheaper and more affordable train tickets under their plans, Haigh said it was Labour’s “ambition” to make fares cheaper but “simplification is our first priority” via the party’s best fare guarantee scheme.

Keir Starmer vowed to bring an end to the “Tory boom and bust” cycle for the rail industry, after visiting Hitachi’s rail manufacturing plant in Newton Aycliffe, County Durham, where 700 jobs are at risk, and a further 1,400 jobs at risk across its supply chain.

The rail minister, Huw Merriman, has been accused of dismissing the job losses as “natural peaks and troughs”. Starmer said: “The workforce here at Hitachi is staring down the barrel of job losses. This was not inevitable.”

“After 14 years of chaos and uncertainty, [this Tory government] has left our rail manufacturing sector teetering on the brink,” he added.

Haigh accepted that the plan would take time, as the final private operator contract with a core term was not due to expire until 2029. “We’d expect all contracts to be brought under Great British Railways by that time,” she told BBC Radio 4’s Today programme. “It will take time; there’s no overnight fixes to a very complex system. We’re not starry eyed about this.”

But a Labour government would immediately be able to create a “shadow Great British Railways [organisation] to fire the starting gun on reform” and ensure the party did not lose time or momentum. It would bring together key players including Network Rail and the Rail Delivery Group, before primary legislation was passed to formally establish GBR as an arm’s length body.

“The Conservative party has achieved the worst of all worlds for our railways, partially privatised, overly centralised, expensive, but unreliable, confusing and shamefully unaccountable,” Haigh said.

She quoted Shapps, who once said: “Unlike most privatisations, that of the railways has never become publicly accepted, because its failings have remained all too obvious … The fragmentation of the network has made it more confusing for passengers, and more difficult and expensive to perform the essentially collaborative task of running trains on time.”

Haigh also vowed to see the “workforce as an asset rather than a liability” but she refused to commit to a pay increase because she had “not seen the books” and “wouldn’t do that in an unfunded way”. But she vowed to meet the unions on day one in order to solve the strikes that she said were costing £25m a day.

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Hepatitis B vaccine

The hepatitis B vaccine helps protect against hepatitis B. It's given to all babies and people at higher risk from hepatitis B.

What the hepatitis B vaccine is for

Hepatitis B is an infection that affects the liver. It's spread through blood, semen and vaginal fluids.

Hepatitis B can be very serious. It can make the liver suddenly stop working or cause gradual damage to the liver over time. It can also increase your chances of getting liver cancer .

Vaccination against hepatitis B helps reduce your chances of getting infected.

Who should have the hepatitis B vaccine

Vaccination against hepatitis B is recommended for all babies as part of the NHS vaccination schedule .

The hepatitis B vaccine is also recommended for people at higher risk of catching or getting seriously ill from hepatitis B.

All babies should have 3 doses of the 6-in-1 vaccine , which helps protect against hepatitis B and other illnesses.

A dose is given at:

• 8 weeks old
• 12 weeks old
• 16 weeks old

If you have hepatitis B while you're pregnant, there's a much higher chance your baby could get the infection. Because of this risk, your baby will be given extra doses of a hepatitis B vaccine:

• within 24 hours of being born
• at 4 weeks old
• at 12 months old

This means they'll have 6 doses in total.

The hepatitis B vaccine is recommended for people at higher risk from hepatitis B, including:

• people who inject drugs or live with someone who injects drugs
• people who change sexual partners often
• gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men
• sex workers
• close family members or sexual partners of someone with hepatitis B
• people who have regular blood transfusions or blood products (and their carers)
• people with long-term (chronic) liver disease or kidney failure
• healthcare workers and some laboratory staff
• prison staff and prisoners
• people travelling to parts of the world where they have a higher risk of getting hepatitis B
• families adopting or fostering children from parts of the world where hepatitis B is more common
• people who live in accommodation for people with learning disabilities or work with people with severe learning disabilities

The hepatitis B vaccine can help stop you getting hepatitis B if you're exposed to the blood or other body fluids of an infected person.

For example, it may be recommended if you've been bitten by someone or you've been injured by a used needle.

Check your travel risk

You can check the risks of a country you're travelling to on the TravelHealthPro website

Who cannot have the hepatitis B vaccine

Most people who need the hepatitis B vaccine can have it, including if you're pregnant or breastfeeding.

The only reason you cannot have the vaccine is if you've had a serious allergic reaction ( anaphylaxis ) to a previous dose of the vaccine or an ingredient in the vaccine.

Getting vaccinated if you're unwell

If you have a high temperature or feel too unwell to do your normal activities, wait until you're feeling better before having the vaccine.

Hepatitis B vaccine ingredients

There are several types of hepatitis B vaccine used in the UK. You can check the ingredients in the patient leaflets.

These vaccines only help protect you from hepatitis B:

• Engerix B vaccine patient leaflet (Electronic Medicines Compendium website; PDF only, 167kb)
• Fendrix vaccine patient leaflet (Electronic Medicines Compendium website; PDF only, 142kb)
• HBvaxPRO vaccine patient leaflet (Electronic Medicines Compendium website)
• PreHevbri vaccine patient leaflet (Electronic Medicines Compendium website)

If you're also at risk of hepatitis A, you may be given 1 of these vaccines to help protect you from both hepatitis A and hepatitis B:

• Twinrix Adult vaccine patient leaflet (Electronic Medicines Compendium website; PDF only, 171kb)
• Twinrix Paediatric vaccine patient leaflet (Electronic Medicines Compendium website; PDF only, 168kb)
• Ambirix vaccine patient leaflet (Electronic Medicines Compendium website; PDF only, 187kb)

All babies are given 1 of these vaccines as part of the NHS vaccination schedule:

• Infranix hexa 6-in-1 vaccine patient leaflet (Electronic Medicines Compendium website; PDF only, 167KB)
• Vaxelis 6-in-1 vaccine patient leaflet (Electronic Medicines Compendium website)

How to get the hepatitis B vaccine

There are different ways to get vaccinated against hepatitis B.

How the hepatitis B vaccine is given

The hepatitis B vaccine is given as an injection into the upper arm or thigh.

You need at least 3 doses of the vaccine to give you the best protection from hepatitis B.

There's usually a month gap between each dose, but sometimes 3 doses can be given within 21 days (with a 4th dose at 12 months) if you need faster protection.

Some people (such as babies exposed to hepatitis B before birth) need more than 3 doses to get the best protection.

Booster doses

You usually only need booster doses of a hepatitis B vaccine if:

• you're a healthcare worker and blood tests show that 3 doses of the vaccine have not given you enough protection from hepatitis B
• you have kidney failure – you may need more doses if a blood test shows your protection has reduced
• you're exposed to hepatitis B (for example, you're bitten by someone or injured by a used needle)

Having the hepatitis B vaccine at the same time as other vaccines

You can have the hepatitis B vaccine at the same time as other vaccines, including the rotavirus vaccine and MMR vaccine.

Side effects of the hepatitis B vaccine

Most of the side effects of the hepatitis B vaccine are mild and do not last long.

They can include:

• swelling or pain where the injection was given
• feeling tired, sleepy or irritable
• feeling or being sick
• a stomach ache
• a high temperature

More serious side effects such as a severe allergic reaction are very rare. The person who vaccinates you will be trained to deal with allergic reactions and treat them immediately.

The hepatitis B vaccines used in the UK contain a killed (destroyed) version of the hepatitis B virus, so there's no risk of getting the infection from the vaccine.

More about vaccine safety

Find out more about why vaccination is important and the safest way to protect yourself

How well the hepatitis B vaccine works

The hepatitis B vaccine works very well at helping protect people against hepatitis B.

Research has shown that:

• 90% of adults and over 98% of babies have good protection from hepatitis B after being vaccinated
• protection against long-term hepatitis B infection could last for as long as 20 to 30 years after being vaccinated

The vaccine can work less well in some people, such as people with kidney failure, so extra doses are sometimes needed.

There's still a chance you could get hepatitis B after being vaccinated, so it's still important to try to reduce your risk of catching it, such as by using condoms during sex and not sharing toothbrushes or needles.

Page last reviewed: 19 March 2024 Next review due: 19 March 2027

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Malaria is still killing people in kenya, but a vaccine and local drug production may help.

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Friends and family lower the casket of Rose Bella Awuor, 31 years, after a funeral service at her home in Awendo, Migori County, Kenya Thursday, April. 11, 2024. Awuor fell ill in December and lost her five-month pregnancy before succumbing to malaria. It was the latest of five deaths in this family attributed to malaria. The disease is endemic to Kenya and is preventable and curable, but poverty makes it deadly for those who can't afford treatment. (AP Photo/Brian Ongoro)

MIGORI – As the coffin bearing the body of Rosebella Awuor was lowered into the grave, heart-wrenching sobs from mourners filled the air. Her sister Winnie Akinyi, the guardian to Awuor’s orphaned son, fell to the ground, wailing.

It was the latest of five deaths in this family attributed to malaria. The disease is common in Kenya, and it is preventable and curable, but poverty makes it deadly for those who can't afford treatment.

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In the family’s compound in the western county of Migori, three other graves are visible, that of Awuor’s husband and their other two children who died from malaria before the age of 2.

Awuor, 31, fell ill in December and lost her five-month pregnancy before succumbing to malaria. Her 11-year-old son is the family's only survivor.

Malaria is still a significant public health challenge in Kenya, though some progress may be coming. Parts of Kenya participated in an important pilot of the world’s first malaria vaccine , with a reported drop in deaths for children under 5. Kenya's health ministry hasn't said when the vaccine will be widely available.

The biggest impact is felt in regions characterized by high temperatures like Kenya's Indian Ocean coast, and places with high rainfall like the western region near Lake Victoria.

Kenya had an estimated 5 million malaria cases and over 12,000 deaths reported in 2022, according to the World Health Organization.

Most of those affected are children under 5 and pregnant women.

Kenya continues to combat malaria with traditional methods such as distributing bed nets that are treated with insecticides, spraying breeding areas, and promoting prompt diagnosis and treatment, but experts say progress against the disease with those approaches has plateaued.

Public health expert Dr. Willis Akhwale, special adviser for the Kenya End Malaria Council, said the COVID-19 pandemic slowed down distribution of drugs and treatment.

He said innovative treatment methods are needed in the wake of drug resistant cases reported in parts of Africa.

“We need to start looking at investments in new generation medicines. That should then be able to counter any resistance in (the) foreseeable future,” he said.

Akhwale said other needs include more funding and logistical support.

“In Kenya the shortfall in terms of the need is almost $52 million, so we need to close that gap,” he said, citing health ministry data. He recommended domestic funding and private sector support amid donor fatigue with crises around the world.

Wilson Otieno has been admitted to a hospital three times for malaria and has received outpatient treatment countless times. It's expensive for the 33-year-old accountant and father in the lakeside city of Kisumu.

Malaria is never “pocket friendly," he said.

Some progress has been made with local manufacturing of crucial medication.

The Kenya-based Universal Corporation Limited last year received the WHO’s approval to produce an antimalarial drug known as Spaq, a combination of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine plus amodiaquine.

The approval was an important step in Africa’s capacity to make lifesaving medications, a new focus for governments and public health officials after vulnerabilities were exposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Africa relies heavily on drug imports.

“It will really help in lowering the dependency for imports as we saw during the COVID era, where whatever was being imported actually had huge supply disruptions,” said Palu Dhanani, the founder and managing director of UCL.

If you don’t get the right medicine at the right time, malaria can cause unnecessary deaths, Dhanani said.

Tiro reported from Nairobi, Kenya. Evelyne Musambi in Nairobi contributed to this report.

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