voyages of christopher columbus and ferdinand magellan

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Ferdinand Magellan

(1480 – 1521)

In search of fame and fortune, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480-1521) set out from Spain in 1519 with a fleet of five ships to discover a western sea route to the Spice Islands. En route he discovered what is now known as the Strait of Magellan and became the first European to cross the Pacific Ocean. The voyage was long and dangerous, and only one ship returned home three years later. Although it was laden with valuable spices from the East, only 18 of the fleet’s original crew of 270 returned with the ship. Magellan himself was killed in battle on the voyage, but his ambitious expedition proved that the globe could be circled by sea and that the world was much larger than had previously been imagined.

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Christopher Columbus

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 11, 2023 | Original: November 9, 2009

The explorer Christopher Columbus made four trips across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain: in 1492, 1493, 1498 and 1502. He was determined to find a direct water route west from Europe to Asia, but he never did. Instead, he stumbled upon the Americas. Though he did not “discover” the so-called New World—millions of people already lived there—his journeys marked the beginning of centuries of exploration and colonization of North and South America.

Christopher Columbus and the Age of Discovery

During the 15th and 16th centuries, leaders of several European nations sponsored expeditions abroad in the hope that explorers would find great wealth and vast undiscovered lands. The Portuguese were the earliest participants in this “ Age of Discovery ,” also known as “ Age of Exploration .”

Starting in about 1420, small Portuguese ships known as caravels zipped along the African coast, carrying spices, gold and other goods as well as enslaved people from Asia and Africa to Europe.

Did you know? Christopher Columbus was not the first person to propose that a person could reach Asia by sailing west from Europe. In fact, scholars argue that the idea is almost as old as the idea that the Earth is round. (That is, it dates back to early Rome.)

Other European nations, particularly Spain, were eager to share in the seemingly limitless riches of the “Far East.” By the end of the 15th century, Spain’s “ Reconquista ”—the expulsion of Jews and Muslims out of the kingdom after centuries of war—was complete, and the nation turned its attention to exploration and conquest in other areas of the world.

Early Life and Nationality 

Christopher Columbus, the son of a wool merchant, is believed to have been born in Genoa, Italy, in 1451. When he was still a teenager, he got a job on a merchant ship. He remained at sea until 1476, when pirates attacked his ship as it sailed north along the Portuguese coast.

The boat sank, but the young Columbus floated to shore on a scrap of wood and made his way to Lisbon, where he eventually studied mathematics, astronomy, cartography and navigation. He also began to hatch the plan that would change the world forever.

Christopher Columbus' First Voyage

At the end of the 15th century, it was nearly impossible to reach Asia from Europe by land. The route was long and arduous, and encounters with hostile armies were difficult to avoid. Portuguese explorers solved this problem by taking to the sea: They sailed south along the West African coast and around the Cape of Good Hope.

But Columbus had a different idea: Why not sail west across the Atlantic instead of around the massive African continent? The young navigator’s logic was sound, but his math was faulty. He argued (incorrectly) that the circumference of the Earth was much smaller than his contemporaries believed it was; accordingly, he believed that the journey by boat from Europe to Asia should be not only possible, but comparatively easy via an as-yet undiscovered Northwest Passage . 

He presented his plan to officials in Portugal and England, but it was not until 1492 that he found a sympathetic audience: the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile .

Columbus wanted fame and fortune. Ferdinand and Isabella wanted the same, along with the opportunity to export Catholicism to lands across the globe. (Columbus, a devout Catholic, was equally enthusiastic about this possibility.)

Columbus’ contract with the Spanish rulers promised that he could keep 10 percent of whatever riches he found, along with a noble title and the governorship of any lands he should encounter.

Where Did Columbus' Ships, Niña, Pinta and Santa Maria, Land?

On August 3, 1492, Columbus and his crew set sail from Spain in three ships: the Niña , the Pinta and the Santa Maria . On October 12, the ships made landfall—not in the East Indies, as Columbus assumed, but on one of the Bahamian islands, likely San Salvador.

For months, Columbus sailed from island to island in what we now know as the Caribbean, looking for the “pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, and other objects and merchandise whatsoever” that he had promised to his Spanish patrons, but he did not find much. In January 1493, leaving several dozen men behind in a makeshift settlement on Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic), he left for Spain.

He kept a detailed diary during his first voyage. Christopher Columbus’s journal was written between August 3, 1492, and November 6, 1492 and mentions everything from the wildlife he encountered, like dolphins and birds, to the weather to the moods of his crew. More troublingly, it also recorded his initial impressions of the local people and his argument for why they should be enslaved.

“They… brought us parrots and balls of cotton and spears and many other things, which they exchanged for the glass beads and hawks’ bells," he wrote. "They willingly traded everything they owned… They were well-built, with good bodies and handsome features… They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. They have no iron… They would make fine servants… With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want.”

Columbus gifted the journal to Isabella upon his return.

Christopher Columbus's Later Voyages

About six months later, in September 1493, Columbus returned to the Americas. He found the Hispaniola settlement destroyed and left his brothers Bartolomeo and Diego Columbus behind to rebuild, along with part of his ships’ crew and hundreds of enslaved indigenous people.

Then he headed west to continue his mostly fruitless search for gold and other goods. His group now included a large number of indigenous people the Europeans had enslaved. In lieu of the material riches he had promised the Spanish monarchs, he sent some 500 enslaved people to Queen Isabella. The queen was horrified—she believed that any people Columbus “discovered” were Spanish subjects who could not be enslaved—and she promptly and sternly returned the explorer’s gift.

In May 1498, Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic for the third time. He visited Trinidad and the South American mainland before returning to the ill-fated Hispaniola settlement, where the colonists had staged a bloody revolt against the Columbus brothers’ mismanagement and brutality. Conditions were so bad that Spanish authorities had to send a new governor to take over.

Meanwhile, the native Taino population, forced to search for gold and to work on plantations, was decimated (within 60 years after Columbus landed, only a few hundred of what may have been 250,000 Taino were left on their island). Christopher Columbus was arrested and returned to Spain in chains.

In 1502, cleared of the most serious charges but stripped of his noble titles, the aging Columbus persuaded the Spanish crown to pay for one last trip across the Atlantic. This time, Columbus made it all the way to Panama—just miles from the Pacific Ocean—where he had to abandon two of his four ships after damage from storms and hostile natives. Empty-handed, the explorer returned to Spain, where he died in 1506.

Legacy of Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus did not “discover” the Americas, nor was he even the first European to visit the “New World.” (Viking explorer Leif Erikson had sailed to Greenland and Newfoundland in the 11th century.)

However, his journey kicked off centuries of exploration and exploitation on the American continents. The Columbian Exchange transferred people, animals, food and disease across cultures. Old World wheat became an American food staple. African coffee and Asian sugar cane became cash crops for Latin America, while American foods like corn, tomatoes and potatoes were introduced into European diets. 

Today, Columbus has a controversial legacy —he is remembered as a daring and path-breaking explorer who transformed the New World, yet his actions also unleashed changes that would eventually devastate the native populations he and his fellow explorers encountered.

HISTORY Vault: Columbus the Lost Voyage

Ten years after his 1492 voyage, Columbus, awaiting the gallows on criminal charges in a Caribbean prison, plotted a treacherous final voyage to restore his reputation.

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This series contains 16 animated historical maps. For a preview, please consult the maps below:

▶ the circumference of the earth and the route towards the west, ▶ magellan’s voyage 1519-1522.

▶ Decolonization after 1945

▶ The United States: a territorial history

▶ The Portuguese and Spanish Empires

▶ European Colonies in North America

The Age of Discovery (Part I)

During the first half of the 15th century, the Portuguese were encouraged by Prince Henry the Navigator to explore the coasts of Africa. In 1492 Christopher Columbus sailed further west into the Atlantic Ocean and discovered islands that he thought were close to Asia. A few years later, Vasco de Gama reached India by sailing around Southern Africa. In 1522, one of the ships in Magellan’s fleet returned to Europe and brought proof that it was possible to circumnavigate the Earth. In a few decades, the way that Europeans saw the world had been completely transformed.

North Atlantic sailings prior to Christopher Columbus

Video extract

Before Christopher Columbus, other European sailors had reached the coasts of America, which we know since there are traces of their presence on these shores. However, this maritime exploit by a few hundred men did not lead to long-term settlement.

The travels of Marco Polo

Marco Polo left Venice with his father and uncle in 1271. Travelling to Ormuz, Central Asia and Mongolia, the three men reached Khanbalik, today’s Beijing, and were welcomed to the luxurious Mongol court. Marco Polo became an adviser to Emperor Khublai Khan and travelled extensively through China.

The voyages of Ibn Battuta 1325-1355

Ibn Battuta was born in Tangier half a century after Marco Polo. For more than thirty years, he travelled to the Middle East, Africa, Central Asia, India and China. Ibn Battuta dictated the story of his travels, known as the “Rihla”, to the secretary of the Sultan of Fez.

The maritime expeditions of Zheng He

In the early 15th century, China launched an exceptional venture: seven major maritime expeditions to explore the Indian Ocean. Unfortunately, the official archives, with plans of the ships and their logs, were destroyed several decades later, which explains why many aspects of this extraordinary adventure are unknown to us today.

Trade in the Indian Ocean in the 15th century

In the 15th century, trade in the Indian Ocean was centred on Southern ports on the Arabian peninsula, the Islamic trading posts on the African coast, and ports on the Indian coast. This triangle was then linked to Malacca by merchant ships travelling to Sri Lanka and the Bay of Bengal, thus making a huge semi-circle stretching from Japan and China to the Spice Islands and Java.

Portuguese Exploration of the African coastline

In order to circumvent the Muslim monopoly on trans-Saharan caravans, around the year 1420 the Portuguese sought access to rich African resources by ship. Encouraged by Henry the Navigator, they sailed out to Africa but had no knowledge of the coastal waters beyond Cape Bojador.

Vasco da Gama’s voyage 1497-1498

King Manuel I of Portugal chose Vasco da Gama to lead the first maritime expedition to India. The passage was opened up by Bartolomeu Diaz who had sailed around the Cape of Good Hope ten years earlier.

The voyage of Pêro da Covilha

During the 15th century, the Indian Ocean was still a great mystery to Europeans. In 1487, the King of Portugal gave Pêro da Covilha and Alfonso de Paiva a mission to report on sailing conditions between Africa and India and to make contact with the legendary Christian kingdom of Prester John.

Portuguese Volta (The ‘Loop’)

During the 15th century, the Portuguese did not know that the world turned on its own axis nor did they have the scientific knowledge to understand atmospheric circulation. It was thanks to their wide-ranging experience as navigators that they overcame the difficult sailing conditions encountered in the Atlantic Ocean.

Portuguese expansion in the Indian Ocean

Portuguese expansion in the Indian Ocean, after Vasco da Gama’s first voyage, was remarkable. The first two Viceroys, Francisco de Almeida and Afonso de Albuquerque, founded a network of trading posts and fortresses along the coast. The Treaty of Saragossa 1529 confirmed Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean.

The Treaties of Tordesillas (1494) and Saragossa (1529)

The first successful expeditions across the Atlantic Ocean raised the question of what to do with the archipelagos and new lands discovered by these navigators. In 1479, Portugal and Castile signed an initial treaty confirming Castile’s dominion over the Canaries, while recognizing Portugal’s monopoly on the African coast.

The circumference of the Earth and the Route towards the West

Complete video

In the 3rd century BCE, Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth with remarkable precision. In later centuries, other Greek geographers, including the most famous of them all, Ptolemy, suggested a much lower figure for the circumference for our planet. This under-estimation was adopted by 15th century map-makers.

Christopher Columbus’ first voyage 1492-1493

Christopher Columbus sailed under the Portuguese flag, but it was Isabella of Castile who provided the funds for his project to sail to Asia by a western route. His flotilla of three ships set sail from Southern Spain on 3 August 1492. He headed first for the Canary Islands, before setting off across the Atlantic Ocean and discovering islands near the American continent.

Christopher Columbus’ three subsequent voyages

In the years following his first voyage, Christopher Columbus carried out three more journeys, but with better resources than in the past. He explored the ring of Caribbean islands, founded the colony of La Isabella on the island of Hispaniola, discovered the huge delta of the Orinoco and sailed along the coast of today’s Honduras.

The first explorations in the New World

Following Christopher Columbus’ discovery of the New World, several expeditions tried to reach China and the Indies by sailing west. Gradually, the Europeans found themselves sailing along the coast of a new continent.

Magellan’s voyage 1519-1522

The expedition led by Magellan was expected to sail as far as the Spice Islands to the west by sailing around the American continent. It was financed by Spain, which hoped to gain access to these islands and their spices without crossing the Indian Ocean, then dominated by the Portuguese.

Ferdinand Magellan: Facts & Biography

Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe. Like many of his contemporaries, Magellan set out to discover a Western sea route to the Spice Islands in Indonesia. Magellan ended up proving, instead, that the world was indeed round and bigger than anyone had previously imagined.

Ferdinand Magellan was born about 1480 to a noble family in Portugal. As a boy, he served the queen of Portugal as a page, and studied cartography and navigation tenaciously.

In his mid-20s, Magellan joined the Portuguese fleet — a job that took him to East Africa, where he fought Egyptian ships in the Battle of Diu; Malacca (Malaysia), where he participated in the conquest of their port; and Morocco, where a wound resulted in a limp he would suffer for the rest of his life. While in Morocco, Magellan was accused of trading illegally with the Moors. Despite his repeated denial of the allegations, Magellan lost his post and future offers of Portuguese employment.

In 1517, Magellan moved to Seville, Spain, where he met a well-connected Portuguese transplant, Diogo Barbosa, married his daughter, Beatriz, and had a son. The Barbosas secured Magellan a meeting with the Spanish court to discuss Magellan’s idea for a voyage. Inspired by the voyages of Christopher Columbus , Vasco Núñez de Balboa and other explorers, Magellan had devised a plan to find a westward-sailing, all-water route to the Spice Islands (also called the Moluccas). Young King Charles I readily approved and financed the expedition.

Journey in the Atlantic

On Aug. 10, 1519, Magellan set sail with 270 men and five ships: the Trinidad (commanded by Magellan), the San Antonio, the Victoria, the Conception, and the Santiago. From Spain, the fleet sailed to Brazil and then headed south, hugging the coast. They were searching for a fabled water passage that would allow them to cross South America without going around Cape Horn.

Going was hard. Magellan searched Rio de la Plata, a Brazilian estuary, fruitlessly for a long time. Many crewmembers were freezing in the bad weather or starving. At Port San Julian, off the coast of Patagonia (which Magellan named), the crew mutinied against Magellan on Easter midnight. He quelled the uprising, killing one captain and leaving another behind. He also sent the Santiago ahead to scout, but it was shipwrecked. Most of the crewmembers were saved, and the fleet spent a winter of harrowing storms in Port San Julian.

Strait of Magellan

When the weather improved, Magellan set sail again. On Oct. 21, 1520, he finally found the passageway that would come to bear his name. The Strait of Magellan is a curvy, narrow channel that separates Tierra del Fuego at the tip of South America from the continental mainland. Sailing through it was treacherous: dangerous to navigate, freezing cold and foggy.

It took the fleet over a month to pass through the 350-mile strait. During that time, the captain of the San Antonio turned his ship around and sailed back to Spain — taking a good deal of the supplies with him.

Pacific Ocean

After 38 days on the strait, the fleet finally emerged at the Pacific Ocean in November 1520. They were the first Europeans to see this ocean. Magellan named it Mar Pacifico because its waters appeared calm in comparison to the difficult strait waters.

Magellan underestimated the size of the ocean, and the ships were unprepared for the journey. Many crewmembers starved while searching for land. Finally in March, the ships landed at Guam. There, they were able to replenish their foot supplies before sailing to the Philippines.

Philippines and Magellan’s death

Upon landing at Cebu, Magellan was overcome with religious zeal and decided to convert the natives to Christianity. Some of the natives agreed to convert, while others did not — and the split caused problems in the population. The Cebuan king became Christian, and sought to fight against a neighboring group, the Mactan, who did not convert. The Cebuans asked Magellan to join them in their fight, and he agreed.

Against the advice of his men, Magellan led the attack, assuming his European weapons would ensure a quick victory. The Mactan people, however, fought fiercely and struck Magellan with a poison arrow. Magellan died from the wound on April 27, 1521.

Return to Spain

After Magellan’s death, Sebastian del Cano took command of the two remaining ships, the Trinidad and the Victoria (the Conception was burned because there were not enough men left to operate it). A former mutineer, del Cano led the ships to the Spice Islands . After securing the spices they had so long ago set out for, the ships set sail for Spain. The Trinidad was attacked by a Portuguese ship and left shipwrecked.

In September 1522 — three years and a month since the journey began — the Victoria docked back in Seville. Only one ship of the original five — and only 18 men of the original 270 — survived the voyage. Among them was Antonio Pigafetta, a scholar who had kept a detailed diary of the expedition.

Magellan’s accomplishments

Though Magellan did not make it around the world, he did lead the first expedition to do so. And though the Strait of Magellan was too dangerous to be used as a regular route, its mapping proved invaluable to the European understanding of the world — as did the European discovery of the Pacific Ocean and the empirical proof that the world was round. [ Countdown: 9 Craziest Ocean Voyages ]

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Jessie Szalay is a contributing writer to FSR Magazine. Prior to writing for Live Science, she was an editor at Living Social. She holds an MFA in nonfiction writing from George Mason University and a bachelor's degree in sociology from Kenyon College. 

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Magellan, Elcano and Their Voyage Around the World

Discover the details of the first circumnavigation of the globe..

By Naval Museum

Museo Naval

We Were The First: Magellan, Elcano, and the Voyage Around the World Naval Museum

The Voyage Around the World In 2019, Spain celebrated 500 years since 5 ships set sail from Seville, heading west in search of a new route to the spices of the east. Around 250 men from at least 9 different countries began the journey, which was funded by the Spanish monarch King Charles I. It was a journey that would end 3 years later with the arrival of just 1 ship carrying 18 men, having completed the first circumnavigation of the world.

Chart of Juan de la Cosa (1500) by Juan de la Cosa Original Source: Museo Naval Madrid.

The World of Magellan and Elcano

Finding a maritime route to the east was a constant preoccupation in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period. The decline of the overland trade route called the Silk Road forced European powers to look for new ways to the east. Portugal began crossing the Atlantic and Spain's Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand II and Isabella I, financed Christopher Columbus' voyage in search of a new route.

Ptolemy's Mappamundi (1472) by Claudio Ptolomeo Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

When Columbus set sail for the Indies in 1492, sea voyages were an adventure into the unknown. The discovery of new lands helped improve cartography, which was essential for navigation. Claudius Ptolemy's Geography, an ancient Roman atlas, was hugely influential in this, as it was the first example of using a systematic method to map the world.

The first map to depict the Americas was produced in 1500 by Juan de la Cosa. It represents the limits of European knowledge of this new world by the time Ferdinand Magellan's expedition set sail in 1519.

The Cantino planisphere. The original is in the Biblioteca Estense Universitaria library in Modena (1502-1505) by Anonimuos Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

In the east, accounts from merchants and travelers alluded to rich and fertile lands. To the south, Portuguese explorers had provided more specific details of the outline of the African coast. Looking west, the tales of Spanish conquistadors described the recently discovered Americas as a new land full of natural riches.

In 1502, Alberto Cantino's Planisphere, or world map, was the first to depict the meridian designated by the Treaty of Tordesillas. Signed in 1494, the treaty divided the rights to sail to and conquer new lands in the Atlantic Ocean and the New World between the Spanish monarchy and Portugal.

Model of the Victoria (2019) by Francisco Fernández González, Luis Fariña Filgueira, Fernando Sagra Sanz, José Antonio Álvarez Manzanares Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. All rights reserved.

Inspiration and Preparation for the Voyage

By that time, Europe had begun to realize that the Americas were a new continent rather than part of Asia, and so continued to send expeditions there. During one of these, Vasco Núñez de Balboa discovered the South Sea (now known as the Pacific Ocean) in 1513. This created new opportunities for navigation on the other side of Panama.

Ratification of the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) Original Source: Archivo del Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

Spain and Portugal began searching for a passage to this ocean to reach the Indies, while adhering to the boundaries established in the Treaty of Tordesillas. Signed in 1494, this treaty comprised a series of agreements between King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile on the one hand, and King John II of Portugal on the other. These established a new line of demarcation between their kingdoms from pole to pole, 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands.

Portrait of Ferdinand Magellan (19th Century) by Spanish anonimous Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese-born sailor who knew the Portuguese route to Africa and Asia, having sailed in the service of King Manuel I of Portugal for over 20 years. He wanted to begin a journey that would take a new route to the Moluccas (Spice Islands), but the idea did not get far at the Portuguese court. That is how he ended up in Spain, where he was welcomed by the young monarch Charles I, grandchild of Ferdinand and Isabella.

Model of the Victoria (2019) by Francisco Fernández González, Luis Fariña Filgueira, Fernando Sagra Sanz, José Antonio Álvarez Manzanares. Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

In 1518, an agreement (the Capitulaciones de Valladolid) was signed between Magellan, his cosmographer Rui Faleiro, and the Spanish monarch to find a new western route to the Spice Islands that avoided the areas under Portuguese control. They had five ships with which to make the journey (the "Trinidad", "San Antonio", "Concepción", "Victoria", and "Santiago"), which the Casa de la Contratación (House of Commerce) supplied with provisions for a planned two-year voyage.

The Voyage (1519–22)

The expedition left Seville on August 10, 1519, arriving in Sanlucár de Barrameda 10 days later to collect the final provisions and equipment. From there, they set sail into the unknown, on a journey that would take three years.

Map of South America (1630) by Gerardis Mercatoris Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

The Familiar: From Seville to Río de Solís Leaving Seville, they journeyed south and, at the beginning of October, they headed southwest across the Atlantic Ocean, which was already familiar to the experienced sailors. On December 13, they dropped anchor in Santa Lucia Bay (now Rio de Janeiro), where they picked up food supplies. In January 1520, they reached the mouth of Río de Solís (now Río de la Plata).

Map of America (Siglo XVI) by Diego Gutierrez Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid.

The Unknown: From the Río de Solís to The South Sea Due to the weather, they decided to stop in Port St. Julian. The "Santiago" was lost on a reconnaissance mission, although the crew and cargo were saved. Discontent was starting to grow among the crew due to the rationing of supplies and not knowing which route to follow. Juan de Cartagena, led a mutiny with the support of the "Victoria" and the "Concepción". Magellan quelled the uprising, killing the captain of the "Victoria" (Luis de Mendoza) and the captain of the "Concepción" (Gaspar de Quesada), and abandoning Juan de Cartagena on an island in Patagonia.

Tierra del Fuego (18th century) by Anónimo Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid.

On August 24, the expedition set off again, but with one less ship after the "Santiago" crashed into a sandbank. “On the 21st of the said month [October 1520] … we saw an opening like a bay … within this bay we found a strait … and passing this strait we found another small bay, and then we found another strait …” (Francisco Albo). They had finally found the passage. What is now known as the Strait of Magellan allowed them access to a new ocean that they called the Pacific.

Penguin Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid.

The accounts of Antonio Pigafetta describe the never-before-seen animals they discovered there, such as the penguin, now known as the Magellanic penguin. During this discovery, the "San Antonio" deserted the expedition and turned east, back to Spain.

Model of a rowboat (rocking boat) (19th Century) by Spanish anonimous Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

The seas gradually became more difficult to navigate. They crossed open waters that were unknown to them, leading to a shortage in supplies and illness among the crew. The expedition landed on islands such as San Pablo, Guam, and the Caroline Islands, signing treaties of loyalty to the king of Spain and spreading Christianity along the way. Finally, in 1521, they reached the Archipelago of San Lazaro, now the Philippines.

Kris with wavy blade (c. 1840) by Philippine anonimous Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

Magellan's Death The commander of the expedition established good relations with the king of Cebu, Rajah Humabon, arousing suspicion in the other local kings. Quarrels broke out, with some in favor of the Spanish and others against, creating a hostile environment. Finally, in 1521, Magellan and 60 men confronted Lapu-Lapu, the king of Mactan. The island's reefs stopped the Spanish artillery boats from landing and they were attacked by 1,500 islanders. Magellan died in the battle.

Primus Circumdedisti Me (2019) by Augusto Ferrer Dalmau Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid.

Elcano and the Arrival at the Moluccas The early departure from the Philippines led to a reorganization of the remaining crew. They set fire to the "Concepción", which was in poor condition, and the crew were split between the two remaining ships. The "Trinidad" was commanded by Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa, and Juan Sebastián Elcano became captain of the "Victoria". At last, on November 8, 1521, they caught sight of the Moluccas, landing on Tidore.

Juan Sebastián Elcano (1854) by J. Donon Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

After arriving at these islands, they discovered the "Trinidad" was no longer seaworthy. Gómez de Espinosa stayed for a few months to repair the ship and wait for more favorable winds to help them sail east and return via the Americas. Meanwhile, Elcano began the return journey across the Indian Ocean towards Africa, setting course for the Cape of Good Hope, which was under Portuguese control.

The Return of the Victoria from the Moluccas to Seville Following more storms and illnesses, the "Victoria" landed in Cape Verde, in Portuguese territory, in May 1522 to carry out repairs and take on supplies. When the Portuguese discovered their cargo and the origin of the crew, they were forced to abandon the island suddenly, leaving some of the crew on land.

Juan Sebastián Elcano returning to Seville in 1522 (Ca. 1944-45) by Elías Salaverría Inchaurrandieta Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

“On the 4th of the said month [September 1522], in the morning, we saw land, and it was Cape St. Vincent, and it was to the northeast of us, and so we changed our course to the southeast …” (Francisco Albo). They had finally returned home. The "Victoria" reached Seville with 18 survivors, 4 days after catching sight of Cape St. Vincent. They had made it possible to carry out commercial trade around the world. They were the first to circumnavigate the globe.

Charles V welcoming back Elcano (1854) by Carlos Mugica y Pérez Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

The king summoned Juan Sebastián Elcano to Valladolid, where he gave him a personal report on the mission and requested the rescue of the crew members held prisoner in Cape Verde. The monarch granted him a lifetime income of 500 gold ducats a year—which he never paid him—and a coat of arms featuring a world globe with the inscription, "Primus circumdedisti me (You were the first to circumnavigate me)."

Model of the barquentine Juan Sebastián de Elcano, a training ship for the Royal Spanish Navy (1927–active service) (1982-1987) by José Francisco Arregui Arambarri Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

Elcano died four years later, during a new mission to the Moluccas led by García Jofre de Loaísa. The current Spanish navy training ship bears his name in his honor.

Descriptio Maris Pacifici (1589) by Abraham Ortelius Original Source: Museo Naval. Madrid. Todos los derechos reservados.

Legacy: A New World

The importance of the Magellan-Elcano voyage far exceeded the original plans for the expedition.

Universal Chart (1866) by Diego Ribero Original Source: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana (Vatican City)

What began as a mission to find a way to the Spice Islands, far from the Portuguese routes, became a successful enterprise for two other reasons: it helped prove the shape of the Earth and showed that the Americas were not part of the Indies, but in fact a whole new continent. It generated numerous economic, geographic, and political changes, and led to the beginnings of globalization.

Organized by the Naval Museum, Madrid Curators: Enrique Martínez Ruiz, Susana García Ramírez, José María Moreno Martín Online adaptation: Blanca Sazatornil, Alicia Suárez. Outreach Department, Naval Museum, Madrid. This exhibition is part of the First Voyage Around the World project.

Chart of Juan de la Cosa: The First Known Map of America

Naval museum, elcano's return (el regreso de elcano), navigational instruments and equipment in the 16th century, scale model ships, masters of the sea, lords of the world, midshipmen: the arrival of science in spain, isaac peral and the invention of the first electric submarine, blas de lezo, the last voyage of the mercedes, la batalla de lepanto.

The Man Who Sailed the World

Ferdinand Magellan’s global journey gave him fame, but took his life

Ferdinand Magellan said he would finish the battle himself. After all, it was he who had ignored the warnings of his allied Philippine ruler, turned down the help of 1,000 neighboring natives and brought 60 of his crew members to face the islanders of Mactan with little preparation. After this retreat order, only a few of Magellan's crew members kept fighting by his side; the rest of them fled as the ever-boastful captain fell victim to the spears of Mactan's angry inhabitants.

This dramatic death fits Magellan's remarkable life—a life in which he traveled thousands of miles by boat and sailed seas previously unknown to Europeans. But something happened to Magellan on his trip around the world. His behavior shifted dramatically from the beginning to the end of the quest, according to a journal kept by Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian navigator whom Magellan hired to keep detailed documents of the voyage.

"When preparing, [Magellan] was apparently able to attract a lot of people to him and was very loyal to his Portuguese buddies," says historian Helen Nadar of the University of Arizona. "During the voyage, he became very different. He started treating his officers in a cruel way. He was very angry because some of the people mutinied."

Most of what is known about Magellan's life and voyage comes from Pigafetta's journal, along with some Portuguese government documents. More certain is the impact Ferdinand Magellan had on both the world of exploration and, through that, the world at large.

Born of noble blood in Portugal in 1480, Magellan worked in the Queen's household as a young boy, where he learned of the new discoveries happening around the world: Bartholomew Diaz rounding the Cape of Good Hope, Vasco da Gama journeying to India and Christopher Columbus discovering America. As he grew older, Magellan volunteered to sail under prestigious captains on long trips to foreign soil.

Around this time, the global spice trading industry was booming. Contrary to popular belief, Europeans highly regarded spices not because of their ability to mask bad meat, but to liven up their meals. "They did it for the taste," says Nadar. "Their meat was fresher then ours is because they slaughtered their meat daily." Jay Levenson, curator of "Encompassing the Globe," a new exhibit about Portugal at Smithsonian's Sackler Gallery and Museum of African Art, says spices also revealed social status. "They were so hard to get, they were a prestige item," he says. "A lot of people didn't even know where the Spice Islands were."

Portugal and Spain were not only competing for dominance in the spice industry, but also for influence in colonies around the world. King Manoel of Portugal was becoming increasingly frustrated with Spain's growing power in the East, especially in the Moluccas, commonly known as the Spice Islands, and was furious when Magellan pledged his allegiance to Spain and offered its king, Charles V, his plan to find an alternate route to India. This route would enable ships to pass from the Atlantic to the already discovered South Sea through South America.

Magellan had already sailed in the name of Portugal several times, but King Manoel had refused to compensate him when pirates looted his ship. Later, Magellan had fought in North Africa in the name of his homeland, but was still not paid.

Once Magellan persuaded King Charles to support his plan, Magellan took an oath of allegiance to Spain, breaking his promise to Portugal. "He couldn't go back to Portugal because he would be executed," says Nadar. "This was regarded as complete treason, perhaps more so because of the huge rivalry between Spain and Portugal at the time."

On August 10, 1519, Charles sent Magellan on his quest with five ships, and placed 265 men under his command. Most of these crewmembers were criminals, because many experienced sailors refused to support Magellan—perhaps because of his Portuguese background, argue some historians.

The journey proved difficult. The natives populating the southern tip of South America were very hostile to the Spaniards; previously, they had captured and eaten another, less-known Spanish explorer. When Magellan and his crew finally found a natural passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (now known as the Strait of Magellan), they thought it was only a large bay, much like the ones they had already encountered. To be sure it wasn't a strait, Magellan sent in two ships with strict orders to return within five days. During this time, however, a large storm passed over the fleet. As Magellan prepared to leave on the fifth day, the two ships returned and said the body of water was indeed a strait.

"Other Spanish voyages had tried to go through [the strait] and got lost," says Nadar. "Getting to the Pacific by ship, without having to go over land, was the biggest challenge of that period, and he's the one that solved it."

Thirty-three days and 344 miles later, Magellan and his crew reached what was then known as the New Sea, which Magellan named the Pacific for its peaceful waters. Like most Europeans at the time, however, Magellan thought Asia was much closer to South America than it actually is. The crew had expected to find many islands along the way to get food, water and other necessities, but did not. To make matters worse, Magellan steered the fleet too far north, possibly to avoid meeting any Portuguese ships, extending the voyage.

The crew lived without fresh food for more than three months. Hard rain and high wind complicated their travels, and the men were plagued with disease despite efforts to keep the boats sanitary. Over the course of the crossing, Magellan lost 19 crew members and one boat.

By the time the crew reached the Philippines, which they first thought to be the Spice Islands, Magellan had become intense and irrational. He didn't find any spices, instead deciding "to become the exclusive European merchant and official for one of the islands in the Philippines," says Nadar. Historical accounts show he joined one island ruler in trying to conquer another Philippine island. The most credible version of what happened next says Magellan insisted on only bringing 60 half-armed men into what is known today as "The Battle of Mactan" and refused any outside help, to show the natives his invincibility. The Spaniards were quickly defeated and Magellan was speared to death.

The remaining crew members continued back to Spain, though only 18 men and one boat returned safely. The strait, originally named Estrecho de Todos los Santos (Strait of All Saints) by Magellan, was renamed the Strait of Magellan by the Spanish king in the fallen explorer's honor.

Today, Magellan is still recognized as the first explorer to circumnavigate the globe, although he himself never completed the journey. His legacy lives on today in both Portuguese and Spanish cultures. "He was very much a part of the crucial generation of Portuguese that opened up eastern Asia," Levenson says. "He was an important figure in the history of Portuguese history, and then because of all the treatment he got, he became an important figure in Spanish history. It's quite interesting."

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Ferdinand Magellan & The First Voyage Around the World

During the Age of Exploration, one task was particularly noteworthy: the circumnavigation of Earth. Discover the life of Ferdinand Magellan and the first voyage around the world.

The Age of Exploration saw the achievement of incredible feats with the voyages of European expeditions. Perhaps the most famous of them all is the arrival of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, but many other expeditions are equally groundbreaking. Besides making contact with a “new continent,” the circumnavigation of the Earth was seen as an enormous feat. With Columbus’ travels and following expeditions by other explorers, the circumnavigation of the world was believed possible, but who would be first? Europe’s major powers put their efforts into completing the task, but one expedition, led by Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer serving the Spanish crown, would ultimately be successful: the Magellan expedition.

Magellan’s Early Life & First Travels

Magellan was born in the north of Portugal in 1480. His family was of noble origin and enjoyed a minor presence yet sufficient status among the higher classes of the Kingdom of Portugal. His father, Rui Magellan, was the mayor of a small town. Ferdinand served as a page to Queen Eleanor, consort of John II of the Portuguese crown. After the death of John, Magellan served under Manuel I. When Magellan was 25, he joined a Portuguese expedition to India, where they would establish Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India. Magellan stayed in India for almost a decade; then, he traveled to Malacca, where, in 1511, the Portuguese conquered the city under the governor Alfonso de Albuquerque.

Magellan received great riches and promotions from his participation in the conquest of Malacca. He received a slave, baptized under the name Enrique of Malacca, who would join Magellan through many of his travels and endeavors. Magellan’s behavior became increasingly rebellious and not in tune with the Portuguese authorities’ expectations. He took leave without permission, was accused of illegally trading in Morocco, and even quarreled with the Portuguese King Manuel I.

Magellan dedicated himself to studying the most recent nautical charts available to him. He investigated, alongside cosmographer Rui Faleiro, the possibility of reaching the Moluccas through a gateway from the Atlantic to the South Pacific in the Americas. While in Malacca, Magellan befriended the navigator Francisco Serrao, who reached and stayed in the Spice Islands (the Moluccas). His letters to Magellan would prove very useful for his consequent travels to the Islands.

Magellan the Spanish Explorer: Pledging Loyalty to the Opposing Crown

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When Magellan fell out of favor with the Portuguese King, he turned to the Spanish crown. Magellan had been refused time and time again an expedition made possible by the Portuguese crown. King Manuel I disapproved of Magellan’s planned expedition. Thus, Magellan renounced his Portuguese nationality and proposed his travel expedition to King Charles I of Spain (Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor ).

At the time of Magellan’s proposed expedition, Spain was at the start of its expansion into other continents, mainly the Americas, which would be decisive for the Spanish to consolidate their empire.

Portugal had a similar situation. The Portuguese Empire had explored most of the coasts of Africa, reached the Indies through said passage, and established colonies all throughout Africa and Asia.

However, both Iberian empires had become rivals whose differences were often solved only through external intervention. The Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 established a division of lands outside of Europe between Spain and Portugal. The treaty was largely left unsettled, but in 1529, the Treaty of Zaragoza clarified and formalized the divisions. Before its formalization, however, Magellan and his fleet would achieve the first circumnavigation of the Earth, arguably abusing the agreement set in the Tordesillas treaty.

Magellan convinced the Spanish king that his expedition would not be opposed to the agreement between Spain and Portugal; thus, he was allowed to sail. King Manuel I was greatly insulted by Magellan’s expedition and work under the Spanish crown. The preparations of the Spanish fleet were disrupted by the Portuguese, and a fleet was sent after Magellan, though it failed to capture him.

Expedition through the Atlantic & Reaching the Americas

Magellan and his fleet left Spain from the port of Seville in 1519. The fleet traveled through the Guadalquivir River until they reached the Atlantic through the port of Sanlucar de Barrameda. The fleet remained in place for weeks, going back and forth from Seville to solve unforeseen difficulties. More than a month later, they departed. The fleet reached the Canary Islands, then passed next to Cape Verde and the coasts of Sierra Leone. Four months went by before the fleet reached the coasts of the Americas.

In December 1519, Magellan and his fleet touched land in what is now Rio de Janeiro. They traveled through the estuary of the Rio de la Plata River, then reached and named the region of Patagonia . In Patagonia, the Spaniards met local Indigenous people for the first time. After making contact and trading with them, the Spanish kidnapped some to bring them back for the king. Unfortunately, the kidnapped Indigenous people didn’t survive.

In March 1520, the fleet found itself in harsh conditions. They took refuge in the port of San Julian, but after considering the expedition had failed, some of the crew attempted to overthrow Magellan as their leader. The insurrection ultimately failed; the leaders of the unsatisfied crew were killed or banished, and Magellan forgave the rest as he needed them to continue. Later, the crew of one of the five ships, San Antonio , once again rose against Magellan and turned back for Spain.

The Strait of Magellan & the Voyage in the Pacific

After facing difficulties finding a passage to the Pacific Ocean (known to them as Mar del Sur ), the fleet reached the Strait of Magellan. Magellan originally named it the Strait of All Saints ( estrecho de Todos los Santos ), but the strait gained its name in honor of Magellan and his expedition, having been the first European explorer to find the strait.

Known to be a harsh place, the Strait of Magellan was challenging to pass through. The Spaniards saw bonfires lit by the natives and thus named the territory “ Tierra del Fuego ” (Land of Fire). Indigenous people lived or had reached as far down as Antarctica . The ocean known to them as Mar del Sur was then baptized the Pacific Ocean for its tranquil waters. For three months, after passing through the strait, the fleet was unable to reach land and disembark. The conditions aboard were challenging, to say the least.

The difficulties during the voyage in the Pacific decreased once the fleet reached the Mariana Islands . The state of the fleet was in tatters, having barely survived over three months without touching land. They then reached the Philippines, becoming the first Europeans to do so. Magellan and his fleet carried out the conversion of the local islanders to Catholicism. Magellan won over the locals by proving his strength and urging them to convert so that they could become like them. Thus, the fleet remained in the region before continuing to the Moluccas.

The Battle of Mactan, Magellan’s Death, & the First Circumnavigation of the World

In the Philippines, the locals were manipulated into converting to Catholicism, but when attempting to form an alliance with one chieftain, Magellan proposed to battle an opposing leader to win over his potential ally. Magellan and his fleet went to the Island of Mactan to fight, convert, and make the chieftain Lapulapu submit to the Spanish crown. The battle was a decisive defeat for the Spanish, who were unprepared and outnumbered. Magellan himself was killed during combat. After Magellan’s death, the expedition under his command had to choose a new leader.

The expedition chose Magellan’s brother-in-law and Juan Serrano as co-commanders, but their leadership would be short-lived. On the first of May, the Spanish disembarked to join the Cebuanos for a feast, yet once the meal was finished, they were surprised and murdered by the Cebuanos. The Spaniards had been betrayed by Magellan’s slave Enrique, who was supposed to be freed after his master’s death but was forced to continue working as an interpreter for them. Enrique made a deal with the island’s leader, Humabon, in order to regain his freedom.

With both co-commanders murdered, Juan Lopez de Carvalho was named captain. The fleet chose to continue with just two ships: Trinidad and Victoria . Carvalho was deemed unable to command, and Gonzalo Gomez de Espinosa was chosen as the new captain, leading the ship Trinidad . Meanwhile, Juan Sebastian Elcano was to captain the ship Victoria . When the fleet reached the Moluccas, it was decided that they should leave for Spain at once, yet the Trinidad was in no shape for that sort of travel, so only the Victoria would continue, and the Trinidad would follow later. Elcano and his ship circumnavigated the African continent for their return, and in September 1522, they reached Spain, completing the first circumnavigation of the world .

5 Things Marco Polo Discovered on His Travels

By Francisco Perpuli BA History (in progress) Francisco is completing a History degree at the University of Guadalajara. He has a keen interest in the study of culture and the arts. In his spare time, he tries to explore and develop other interests while saving up to travel the world.

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Lesson Plan: Early Explorers and Expeditions

Christopher Columbus and Early Atlantic Exploration

Northeastern History Professor William Fowler looks at early Atlantic exploration, Christopher Columbus and the beginning of his journey east from Spain.

Description

For centuries, explorers navigated the globe to discover new land, accumulate wealth, spread faith, and seek glory. Their discoveries helped map the world and acquire new territory; however, their arrival to new land impacted the people they encountered in different cultures as well. View the videos below to learn about some of the early explorers and how they affected history.

This lesson offers several options for you to use with your students whether you are teaching in class, using a hybrid model, or engaging through distance learning. It can be completed in steps as a class or students can move at their own pace and complete the activities independently.

You can post links to the videos in the lesson along with the related handouts and engage in discussion to share responses on a discussion board or learning management system.

You can also save and share the following Google resources for students to use with this lesson.

HANDOUT: Early Explorers and Expeditions (Google Doc)

CHOICE BOARD: Early Explorers Choice Board (Google Slides)

In Google, choose "File" then "Make a Copy" to get your own copy. You can make any needed adjustments in the instructions such as which activities students need to complete, when it is due, etc. and then make it available to them via Google.

Introduction:

Ask students to share what they know about early explorers. Use the following questions to guide class discussion:

• Who are some of the explorers?
• From which countries did they travel?
• Where did they travel to?
• What were they searching for?

Exploration:

Break students into groups and have each group view the following video clips. Students can review the vocabulary terms associated with each video, then take notes on the accompanying handout as they watch the clips.

VIDEO CLIP 1: Christopher Columbus (10:48)

Northeastern History Professor William Fowler looks at early Atlantic exploration, Christopher Columbus and the beginning of his journey east from Spain. 

Vocabulary: Caravel, Francis I Of France, Granada, Henry Vii Of England, Iberian Peninsula, King Ferdinand Ii And Queen Isabella, Moors, Pinzón Brothers, Port Of Palos, Propitious, Viceroy

Explain how Christopher Columbus secured financing for his voyage.

What titles did King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella grant to Columbus in their contract?

• Explain why Columbus went to the Port of Palos, and describe his experience there while preparing for his voyage.

VIDEO CLIP 2: Amerigo Vespucci (4:55)

Toby Lester talks about the exploration of Amerigo Vespucci and his contributions to discovering new land.

Vocabulary: Asia, Indian Ocean, Ptolemy

When did Amerigo Vespucci's conduct his explorations?

What areas did he explore?

Describe his exploration and discovery.

• Why was Vespucci's discovery so significant?

VIDEO CLIP 3: Juan Ponce de Leon (3:21)

Kit Keating talks about Ponce de Leon and the Fountain of Youth.

Vocabulary: Adelantado, Aquifer, Colonization, Fountain Of Youth, Hispan iola, Puerto Rico,Timucua

Explain the significance of this area of the United States.

Who was Juan Ponce de Leon?

What opportunity did the King of Spain present to Ponce de Leon?

Explain his voyage to this region.

What was Ponce de Leon searching for?

• Explain the significance of the Fountain of Youth spring.

VIDEO CLIP 4: Ferdinand Magellan (3:36)

Author Laurence Bergreen talks about the voyage and hardships of Magellan and his men.

Vocabulary: Caravel, Circumnavigation, Fjord, Fleet, Mutiny

Describe the conditions of the Straits of Magellan.

• Describe Magellan's fleet during his voyage. How was it altered during the course of their exploration?

VIDEO CLIP 5: Francisco Pizarro (2:35)

Kim MacQuarrie provides background information on the conquistador Francisco Pizarro.

Vocabulary: Andes Mountains, Conquistador, Illiterate, Incas

Explain how Francisco Pizarro made his way to Peru.

• Describe the group of people who joined Francisco Pizarro's expedition

VIDEO CLIP 6: Hernando De Soto (4:27)

Park Ranger Dan Stephens talks about the May 1539 landing of Spaniard Hernando de Soto at Tampa Bay, FL.

Vocabulary: Battle Of Mabila, Caravel, Conquistador, Galleon, Gulf of Mexico, Inca People, Manatee River, Tampa Bay

When did Hernando De Soto travel to Florida?

Explain how he traveled here and what he brought with him.

List the three things De Soto was searching for and explain why he was seeking them.

How did he and his army treat Native Americans? What were the results of these encounters?

Explain what occurred at the Battle of Mabila.

• Describe the events that followed the battle.

VIDEO CLIP 7: Francisco Vázquez de Coronado (5:36)

Scott Smith talked about the history of the Coronado State Monument and about conquistador and explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado. Coronado, with 300 soldiers and 800 Indian allies from New Spain, was looking for the fabled Seven Cities of Gold and instead found villages inhabited by prosperous native people from the area.

Vocabulary: Pueblo, Tiguex War, Viceroy

Which country sponsored Coronado's expedition?

• Describe Coronado's experiences throughout his expedition.

VIDEO CLIP 8: Robert de La Salle (9:59)

Jim Bruseth discusses Robert de La Salle's early exploration of America in the 1680s and La Belle, one of four ships used by La Salle.

Vocabulary: Colonize, Gulf Of Mexico, King Louis Xiv, La Belle, Matagorda Bay, Mississippi River, Rio Grande River

What area of America did Robert de La Salle discover for France?

What was the goal of King Louis XIV and La Salle?

Explain the events that unfolded when La Salle and his team sailed back to America to colonize the area.

How did Spain react to France’s attempt at colonization? What did they discover?

Explain the purpose of La Belle.

Describe the artifacts that were discovered on La Belle, and explain the importance of these findings.

• What effect did the sinking of La Belle have on France’s efforts to colonize the northern Gulf of Mexico?

VIDEO CLIP 9: The Spanish Conquest of the Aztecs (3:21)

Yale professor emeritus John Demos explained the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs by Conquistador Hernán Cortés. He spoke about the advantages that the Spanish had over the Aztecs in spite of their numerical disadvantages.

Vocabulary: Aztec Empire, Bacteriological Warfare, Conquistador, Hernán Cortés, Montezuma, Morale, Smallpox, Spaniard

According to Professor Demos, what disadvantages did Hernán Cortés have compared to the Aztecs?

What military advantages did the Spaniards have?

What does Professor Demos mean by the Spanish engaging in unplanned "bacteriological warfare?" How did this aid them?

• Describe the size of the Aztec Empire at the time. How did the Spanish use alliances with subject tribes to defeat the Aztecs?

Conclusion:

As a class, have each group present the information they learned about their explorer. Engage in class discussion about who sponsored the trip, the purpose of the voyage, the impact it had on the area and its significance.

Additional Activities:

Students can select one of the following activities to complete:

Classroom Museum Exhibit: Students can select one of the explorers they have researched and create an artifact to include in the exhibit along with a written explanation describing its significance.

From the perspective of the explorer or crew member, write a journal entry describing what you experienced along the voyage. Be sure to include details explaining the purpose of your journey, the impact you had on the area and/or indigenous people you may have encountered and the legacy of your trip.

Postcard: Students can use a template to create a Postcard from the perspective of the explore they studied.

Related Article

• Spanish and French Exploration - AP U.S. History Topic Outlines - Study Notes
• Amerigo Vespucci
• Christopher Columbus
• Ferdinand Magellan
• Francisco Pizarro
• Francisco Vázquez De Coronado
• Hernando De Soto
• Juan Ponce De Leon
• Robert De La Salle

European Exploration in the Americas — APUSH 1.3 Notes, Review, and Terms

APUSH Unit 1, Topic 1.3 covers the European exploration of the regions of North America, Central America, and South America, up to the settlement of Jamestown.

Christopher Columbus. Image Source: Wikipedia.

Summary of European Exploration in the Americas

APUSH Unit 1, Topic 1.3 covers the European exploration of the regions of North America, Central America, and South America and is often referred to as the Age of Exploration. 

European Exploration Begins with the Vikings

Although APUSH Unit 1 covers the years 1491 to 1607, European Exploration started much earlier. As early as the late 10th Century, Vikings from the Scandinavian Region of Northern Europe sailed west to Greenland and established a settlement on the southwest coast. That was followed by the voyage of Leif Erickson to present-day Newfoundland on the east coast of Canada — 500 years before Christopher Columbus arrived in the Caribbean.

The Impact of the Renaissance

Starting in the 15th Century, Europe began to rise out of the Middle Ages due to the Renaissance. The Renaissance saw a revival in the humanities, including the arts, literature, philosophy, and science. It started in Florence, Italy around 1450 and spread throughout Europe until roughly 1650. 

As it spread, it led to social changes and technological advancements. The social changes contributed to the Protestant Reformation, which was followed by the English Reformation. The technological advancements enabled European explorers to travel the world and map all the continents except Antarctica.

The Golden Age of European Exploration Begins

In 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed west, searching for a new trade route to the east, and landed in the Bahama Islands. Within five years, explorers from Spain, Portugal, England, and the Netherlands were sailing west, claiming the land they found for their respective nations, or for the nations that sponsored their voyages.

From 1494 to 1604, various settlements were established in the Western Hemisphere by European Explorers. Some still stand today, including St. Augustine, Florida. Others, like the Lost Colony of Roanoke Island , vanished or have otherwise been lost to time.

APUSH 1.3 Review Video

This video from Heimler’s History provides an excellent overview of APUSH 1.3. You can also check out our APUSH Guide provides a look at all Units and Topics in the APUSH Curriculum.

APUSH 1.3 Review Terms and Notes for Unit 1 Key Concepts and APUSH Themes

The terms and definitions that follow are related to the Key Concepts for Unit 1 and are broken into sections by APUSH Themes. Within the explanations of APUSH 1.3 Terms are links to content on American History Central that should provide a more comprehensive understanding of each topic.

Unit 1 Key Concepts

Key Concept 1.1 — As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments.

Key Concept 1.2 — Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.

APUSH Themes

• American and National Identity

Work, Exchange, and Technology

• Migration and Settlement
• Politics and Power
• America in the World
• Geography and the Environment
• Culture and Society

Geography — North America

The following APUSH Terms and Definitions fall under the theme of Geography and are locations in North America.

Baja California

Baja California is a peninsula in Northwestern Mexico, separated from the rest of the country by the Gulf of California. It was colonized by the Spanish in the 16th century, primarily as a strategic outpost and a stopping place for Spanish ships traveling to and from the Philippines. Baja California played a limited role in Spanish colonization compared to other regions in Mexico, but it has a unique cultural and geographical identity.

Florida is a region located in the Southeastern United States. It was first explored by Spanish Conquistadors, including Juan Ponce de León, who is credited with giving the region its name. Florida became a major focus of Spanish Colonization and was the site of the first permanent European settlement in the present-day United States, St. Augustine, established in 1565.

“New Albion” was the name given by Sir Francis Drake to a region in present-day Marin County California, during his explorations in the late 16th century. It represented English claims to the area and was named after the ancient name for England, “Albion.” Drake’s visit marked one of the first English explorations of the region, although no permanent English settlement was established there.

Newfoundland

Newfoundland is an island located off the Northeastern Coast of North America, part of the Canadian Province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It holds historical significance as one of the earliest areas visited and settled by Europeans, particularly Norse explorers. It later became a focal point for British and French colonization efforts and a strategic location for the fishing industry and transatlantic trade.

Nova Scotia

Nova Scotia, meaning “New Scotland” in Latin, is a Canadian province located in Eastern Canada. It was originally inhabited by Indigenous peoples, such as the Mi’kmaq. The area was colonized by the French in the early 17th century, but it came under British control after the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the War of the Spanish Succession and Queen Anne’s War. Nova Scotia played a significant role in maritime trade and fishing industries in the Colonial Era and was a point of conflict between the British and the French. It later became an important destination for Scottish immigrants, contributing to its name.

Outer Banks

The Outer Banks is a narrow strip of barrier islands located off the coast of North Carolina, United States. Known for its picturesque beaches and unique ecosystem, the Outer Banks has a rich history intertwined with maritime exploration and pirate lore. It served as a haven for pirates such as Blackbeard and was a site of shipwrecks due to treacherous offshore shoals.

In 1719, Founding Father Benjamin Franklin wrote a poem about Blackbeard called The Taking of Teach the Pirate .

Geography — Europe

The following APUSH Terms and Definitions fall under the theme of Geography and are locations in Europe.

Aragon was another medieval kingdom in the northeastern region of the Iberian Peninsula, now part of modern-day Spain. It originated in the 11th century and experienced significant territorial expansion through military conquests. Aragon played a crucial role in the Reconquista and was instrumental in the formation of the Kingdom of Spain. The marriage of Isabella I of Castille and Ferdinand II of Aragon brought the two kingdoms together.

Castille, or Castilla in Spanish, was a medieval kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula that played a crucial role in the history of Spain. It emerged as a political entity in the 9th century and eventually became the dominant kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula. Castille expanded its territories through conquests and marriages, absorbing neighboring territories and kingdoms. It played a significant role in the Reconquista, the centuries-long campaign to retake the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors. Castille was the birthplace of Queen Isabella I, who, together with her husband Ferdinand II of Aragon, united the kingdoms of Castille and Aragon to form modern Spain.

England is a country located in the southern part of the island of Great Britain in Europe. England’s long, complex history has made an impact on the world due to its political, cultural, and economic developments. England played a prominent role in European history, particularly during the Medieval Period, the Renaissance, and the Colonial Era. It was the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution and became a global power through its vast empire, including territories in North America, the Caribbean, Africa, and Asia.

France is located in Western Europe. It has a rich history and is known for its cultural and intellectual contributions to the world, along with its rivalry with England. France played a pivotal role in medieval history, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution. It had a vast colonial empire, including territories in North America, Africa, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia.

Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula is located in southwestern Europe and is comprised mainly of present-day Spain and Portugal. During the Age of Exploration, the Iberian Peninsula played a leading role as the launching point for many voyages of discovery. Spanish and Portuguese explorers, such as Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan, set sail from the Iberian Peninsula, expanding European knowledge and influence around the globe.

Netherlands

The Netherlands, also known as Holland, is a country located in Northwestern Europe. It is known for its flat landscapes, windmills, canals, tulip fields, and cycling culture. The Netherlands has a long history, including the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th century, when it became a major economic and colonial power. The Dutch established a global trading empire and played a significant role in exploration and colonization, particularly in the East Indies — present-day Indonesia — and the Americas.

Portugal is a country located on the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula in Europe. Portugal was heavily involved in exploration and colonization during the Age of Exploration. Portugal played a leading role in maritime exploration, establishing a colonial empire that included territories in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal, under the leadership of Prince Henry the Navigator, embarked on numerous expeditions in search of new trade routes and territories. Portuguese explorers such as Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, and Bartolomeu Dias made significant voyages, opening up new sea routes to India, Africa, and the Americas.

Geography — Islands

The following APUSH Terms and Definitions fall under the theme of Geography and are important islands.

The Bahamas is an archipelago consisting of more than 700 islands located in the Atlantic Ocean. It played a significant role in the history of European exploration, as it was one of the first areas encountered by Christopher Columbus during his 1492 voyage. The islands were subsequently colonized by various European powers, with the British establishing dominance in the 17th century.

East Indies

The East Indies, also known as the “Indies,” refers to a group of islands in Southeast Asia, including modern-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. During the Age of Exploration, European powers, notably the Dutch and Portuguese, sought control over the lucrative spice trade originating from the East Indies. The pursuit of these valuable resources greatly influenced European colonization efforts in the region.

Hispaniola is an island in the Caribbean, divided between the present-day countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It was claimed by Christopher Columbus in 1492. Hispaniola was subsequently colonized by Spain, becoming a center of Spanish colonial administration and a hub for trade, including the Transatlantic Slave Trade .

San Salvadore

San Salvador, also known as Guanahani, is an island in the Caribbean Sea. It gained historical significance as the first landfall in the New World by Christopher Columbus during his 1492 voyage. Believed to be part of the Bahamas, San Salvador marked the initial encounter between Europeans and the indigenous peoples of the Americas, and it ignited the age of European exploration and colonization in the Western Hemisphere.

Geography — Waterways

The following APUSH Terms and Definitions fall under the theme of Geography and are key waterways in North America related to European Exploration.

Chesapeake Bay

Chesapeake Bay is a large estuary located on the East Coast of the United States, primarily in Maryland and Virginia. Explored by Captain John Smith in the early 17th century, Chesapeake Bay became a vital waterway for English colonial settlements, including Jamestown. The region later became a major center for tobacco cultivation and played a crucial role in the development of the English and British Colonies in North America.

Mississippi River

The Mississippi River is one of the longest rivers in North America, flowing through the United States from its headwaters in Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico. It was explored by various European expeditions, including those led by Hernando de Soto and René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle. The Mississippi River played a significant role in the exploration, colonization, and trade in the interior of North America and is called the “Father of Waters.”

Northwest Passage

The Northwest Passage was a sea route that was sought by European explorers in the 16th and 17th centuries as a way to access the wealth and resources of the Pacific Ocean. The Northwest Passage was believed to be a shortcut between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and it was the subject of numerous expeditions. European explorers, including Martin Frobisher and Henry Hudson, sought the passage. Although it was not found until 1851, expeditions during the Age of Exploration allowed Europeans to gain a better understanding of Arctic geography and Canada’s northern regions.

St. Lawrence River

The St. Lawrence River is a major river in North America, flowing through the Great Lakes and connecting the Atlantic Ocean. Explored by French explorers such as Jacques Cartier and Samuel de Champlain, the St. Lawrence River became an important waterway for Fur Trade and French Colonization in Canada.

Migration and Settlement — Dutch Explorers

Adrian block.

Adrian Block was a Dutch explorer and navigator who played a significant role in the early exploration and colonization of North America. Block was part of the Dutch West India Company and is known for his explorations along the northeastern coast of the continent. In 1613 and 1614, he led expeditions that resulted in the mapping and exploration of areas such as Long Island, Block Island, and the Connecticut River. Block’s voyages contributed to Dutch claims and presence in the region.

Migration and Settlement — English Explorers and Investors

John Davis was an English explorer and navigator who made several voyages in search of the Northwest Passage. In the late 16th century, Davis explored the Arctic regions of North America, including the coasts of Greenland and Baffin Island. He made important discoveries and contributions to the understanding of Arctic geography.

Francis Drake

Sir Francis Drake was an English privateer, explorer, and naval officer. He gained fame for his daring circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580. Drake’s exploits included raids against Spanish colonies in the Americas, capturing immense wealth, and disrupting Spain’s dominance in the New World. Renowned as a skilled navigator and commander, Drake played a pivotal role in establishing England’s naval supremacy and bolstering its position as a major colonial power. His daring voyages helped lay the foundation for England’s vast overseas empire and significantly influenced the balance of power among European nations.

Drake also visited the Roanoke Island Colony in 1586 and transported some of the colonists back to England. A local Indian, Manteo, also sailed with Drake’s fleet to England.

Martin Frobisher

Martin Frobisher was an English navigator and explorer who played a significant role in the search for the Northwest Passage. In the late 16th century, he made three expeditions to the Arctic Region, primarily focusing on present-day Canada. Although he did not find the passage, his voyages were followed by others.

Humphrey Gilbert

Humphrey Gilbert, an English explorer and colonizer of the late 16th century, played a key role in England’s efforts to establish colonies in North America. Gilbert’s endeavors included unsuccessful attempts to establish settlements in Newfoundland and the Chesapeake Bay Region, including the Roanoke Island Colony. Gilbert was also the half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh.

Raleigh Gilbert

Raleigh Gilbert was an English colonizer, the son of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and the nephew of Sir Walter Raleigh. Gilbert played a role in the early attempts at English colonization in North America and was involved in the leadership of the Popham Colony.

Ferdinando Gorges

Ferdinando Gorges was an English colonial entrepreneur and a significant figure in early English attempts to establish colonies in North America. He was a prominent member of the Plymouth Company, which played a role in the colonization of Maine and granted the Pilgrims a land patent to settle in the New World . Gorges was a proponent of English expansion in the New World and sought to establish permanent settlements in the region. He was involved in the formation of the Council for New England and received land grants for territories in Maine, becoming an influential figure in the development of English colonies in North America, including New Hampshire and Massachusetts .

Bartholomew Gosnold

Bartholomew Gosnold was an English explorer and colonizer who played a key role in the early English ventures to North America. In 1602, he led an expedition to explore the New England coast, discovering and naming Cape Cod and Martha’s Vineyard. Gosnold’s voyage laid the groundwork for future English settlements in the region and contributed to the colonization efforts in the early 17th century. Gosnold was one of the first colonists at Jamestown and a member of the Governor’s Council.

John Hawkins

John Hawkins was an English naval commander and slave trader during the 16th century. Hawkins played a key role in the development of the English Slave Trade. Hawkins oversaw voyages to West Africa where he captured and transported African slaves to be sold in the Spanish Colonies of the Americas.

Henry Hudson

Henry Hudson was an English explorer who is credited with discovering the Hudson River and the Hudson Bay in North America in the early 17th century. Hudson’s voyages, which were funded by the English government, helped to establish English claims to the region and laid the foundations for the later colonization of the northeastern part of North America by the English. Hudson’s voyages also helped to establish trade routes between England and the New World.

John Popham

John Popham was an English lawyer and member of the Plymouth Company. He helped organize and fund the Popham Colony.

Martin Pring

Martin Pring was an English explorer and navigator who conducted several voyages to North America in the early 17th century. In 1603, he embarked on an expedition to what is now Maine and Massachusetts, exploring and mapping the region. Pring’s voyages provided valuable information about the geography and resources of New England, paving the way for future English settlement and trade.

Walter Raleigh

Sir Walter Raleigh was an English explorer, writer, and adventurer who is best known for his role in the colonization of the New World. Raleigh also led several expeditions to the New World, including the establishment of the Roanoke Colony in what is now modern-day North Carolina. The colony, which was funded by Raleigh, was established in 1585 and was the first English settlement in the New World. However, the colony was abandoned a few years later and is known as the “Lost Colony” due to the disappearance of its settlers.

John Smith was an English soldier, explorer, and leader in the early years of Jamestown Colony . He played a critical role in the survival of the colony, implementing strict discipline, establishing relations with Native American tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy, and exploring the Chesapeake Bay Region. Smith’s leadership and determination were instrumental in ensuring Jamestown’s survival in its early years. Smith’s accounts of the colony’s challenges and achievements provide important insights into the early English colonial experience.

George Weymouth

George Weymouth was an English explorer and mariner who led an expedition to North America in 1605. Sailing under the sponsorship of the Plymouth Company, Weymouth explored the coast of present-day Maine and conducted diplomatic interactions with Native American tribes, particularly the Penobscot people. His voyage contributed to English knowledge of the New England Region and played a role in future colonization efforts.

Migration and Settlement — French Explorers

Jacques cartier.

Jacques Cartier was a French explorer who is credited with discovering the St. Lawrence River and the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada in the 16th century. Cartier’s voyages, which were sponsored by the French government, established French claims to the region and laid the foundations for the later colonization of Canada by the French. Cartier’s voyages also helped to establish trade routes between France and the New World and played a significant role in the early history of Canada.

Samuel de Champlain

Samuel de Champlain was a French explorer and colonizer who is credited with establishing the first permanent French settlement in North America at Quebec in 1608. Champlain’s voyages, which were sponsored by the French government, helped establish French claims to the region and laid the foundations for the later colonization of Canada by the French. Champlain’s voyages also established trade routes between France and the New World and played a significant role in the early history of Canada.

De Champlain was involved in the Beaver Wars , an early conflict for control of the Fur Trade in North America.

Robert de La Salle

Robert de La Salle was a French explorer who is best known for his expeditions in North America during the late 17th century. La Salle explored the Great Lakes region and the Mississippi River, claiming these territories for France. He is credited with establishing a French presence in the interior of North America and played a significant role in French colonization.

René Goulaine de Laudonnière

René Goulaine de Laudonnière was a French explorer and colonizer who played a significant role in French attempts to establish a colony in North America. He is best known for his involvement in the establishment of Fort Caroline, a French Huguenot settlement in present-day Jacksonville, Florida. In 1564, Laudonnière led an expedition to Florida under the sponsorship of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. He founded Fort Caroline as a haven for French Protestants. However, conflicts with the Spanish and internal challenges ultimately led to the destruction of Fort Caroline by the Spanish in 1565.

Jean Ribault

Jean Ribault, a French naval officer and explorer, led an expedition to Florida in 1562. Ribault aimed to establish a French colony in the region and successfully founded Fort Caroline. His efforts bolstered the French presence in North America, challenging Spanish claims and igniting fierce competition among European powers for control of the continent.

Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval

Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval was a French nobleman and explorer who led an ill-fated expedition to establish a French colony in Canada in the 16th century. In 1541, Roberval was appointed as the lieutenant-general of New France by King Francis I of France. His expedition aimed to establish a permanent settlement in North America, but it faced numerous challenges, including harsh weather, conflicts with indigenous peoples, and internal strife. The venture ultimately failed, and Roberval’s colony was abandoned.

Migration and Settlement — Italian Explorers

John Cabot, also known as Giovanni Caboto, was an Italian explorer commissioned by King Henry VII of England. He embarked on voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, seeking a western route to Asia. In 1497, Cabot reached Newfoundland, making him one of the first Europeans to set foot on the North American continent since the Vikings.

Sebastian Cabot

Sebastian Cabot, the son of John Cabot, followed in his father’s footsteps and made several voyages in the early 16th century. Cabot explored the northeastern coast of North America, including parts of modern-day Canada. His maps and writings contributed to European knowledge of the New World.

Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer who is credited with discovering the Americas in 1492. Columbus made four voyages to the Americas, sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain — Ferdinand and Isabella — and his expeditions helped to establish the first Spanish colonies in the Americas. Over time, Columbus has become a controversial figure due to the impact his voyages ultimately had on Indigenous peoples in the Americas.

Giovanni da Verrazzano

Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian explorer and navigator sailing under the French flag, made significant contributions to European knowledge of North America in the early 16th century. Verrazzano undertook expeditions along the eastern coast of the continent, charting and exploring areas such as present-day New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay. Verrazzano’s explorations laid the groundwork for future European colonization in North America and influenced the geopolitical rivalries among European powers seeking to claim territories in the New World.

Amerigo Vespucci

Amerigo Vespucci was an Italian explorer who is best known for his role in the exploration and mapping of the New World. He is credited with the discovery of the mainland of South America and was the first to suggest that the landmass was a separate continent, not part of Asia as had previously been believed. Vespucci’s explorations were funded by the Medici family of Florence, Italy, and he wrote extensively about his travels, providing valuable information about the geography and indigenous peoples of the New World.

Migration and Settlement — Portuguese Explorers

Pedro álvares cabral.

Pedro Álvares Cabral was a Portuguese explorer who is credited with the discovery of Brazil. In 1500, while attempting to sail to India, Cabral veered off course and landed on the eastern coast of South America. His arrival in Brazil marked the beginning of Portuguese colonization in the region.

Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo

Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo was a Portuguese explorer who sailed for the Spanish Empire. He is known for leading the first recorded European expedition to explore the California coast. In 1542, Cabrillo set sail from Mexico with the goal of finding a northwest passage to Asia. He explored the California coastline, reaching as far north as present-day Oregon. Cabrillo’s voyage provided valuable information about the geography of the region and the indigenous peoples encountered along the way. His exploration marked an important early European contact with California and laid the foundation for future Spanish and European presence in the area.

Bartholomeu Dias

Bartholomeu Dias was a Portuguese explorer who became the first European to sail around the southernmost tip of Africa, known as the Cape of Good Hope, in 1488. Dias’s expedition opened the way for future European sea trade with India and Asia by establishing a new route around Africa. His voyage demonstrated the reality of reaching the Indian Ocean via the southern route and contributed to Portugal’s dominance in maritime exploration during the Age of Exploration.

Vasco da Gama

Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer who commanded the first successful sea voyage from Europe to India. In 1498, he reached the Indian subcontinent by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope and crossing the Indian Ocean. Da Gama’s expedition opened a direct sea route between Europe and Asia, bypassing the traditional overland Silk Road trade routes. His successful voyage established Portugal as a major maritime power and initiated an era of European dominance in Indian Ocean trade.

Ferdinand Magellan

Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who is best known for leading the first voyage to circumnavigate the world. He set out on his voyage in 1519 with a fleet of five ships and a crew of over 200 men. Magellan’s expedition encountered many challenges, including mutiny, starvation, and disease, but ultimately succeeded in circumnavigating the globe, returning to Spain in 1522 with just one ship and 18 survivors. Magellan himself died during the voyage, in 1521.

Prince Henry the Navigator

Henry the Navigator was a Portuguese prince who played a significant role in the Age of Exploration in the 15th century. Henry the Navigator was a patron of exploration and an advocate of the use of new technologies, such as the caravel, a type of sailing ship that was well-suited for exploration. Henry the Navigator also supported the establishment of a Trading Post Network and colonies along the West African coast, which helped to expand Portuguese trade and influence in the region.

Migration and Settlement — Spanish Explorers

Pedro menendez de aviles.

Pedro Menendez de Aviles was a distinguished Spanish admiral and explorer who played a pivotal role in the early colonization of the Americas. Tasked with establishing a Spanish foothold in Florida, he founded the settlement of St. Augustine in 1565. His primary objective was to defend Spanish interests and counter the encroachment of French and English rivals in the region. His efforts solidified Spanish control in Florida.

Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón

Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón was a Spanish Conquistador and explorer who played an important role in early Spanish efforts to colonize North America. In 1526, he led an expedition to what is now the southeastern coast of the United States, specifically present-day South Carolina. He established the short-lived colony of San Miguel de Guadalupe. However, the colony faced significant challenges and was quickly abandoned.

Vasco Núñez de Balboa

Vasco Núñez de Balboa was a Spanish explorer who is best known for leading an expedition that crossed the Isthmus of Panama. In 1513, he became the first European to reach the Pacific Ocean from the Americas. His discovery paved the way for future explorations and expeditions in the Pacific region, including the eventual colonization of present-day South America by the Spanish.

Juan de Bermúdez

Juan de Bermúdez was a Spanish explorer and navigator who is believed to have discovered the uninhabited islands now known as Bermuda in the early 16th century. The islands were named after him.

Hernán Pérez Bocanegra

Hernán Pérez Bocanegra was a Spanish Conquistador and one of the first European settlers in New Mexico. In 1598, he joined the expedition led by Juan de Oñate to establish a colony in the region. Bocanegra played a role in the early colonization of New Mexico and the interactions between the Spanish and the people living in the area.

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition into the southwestern United States in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola and other riches. From 1540 to 1542, Coronado and his forces explored regions such as present-day Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, encountering various indigenous cultures along the way.

Hernán Cortés

Hernán Cortés was a Spanish Conquistador who led the expedition that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire in present-day Mexico. In 1519, Cortés and his forces arrived in Mexico and engaged in alliances and conflicts with various indigenous groups. Cortés eventually conquered the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán in 1521, establishing Spanish control over the region.

Antonio de Mendoza

Antonio de Mendoza was a Spanish Conquistador and the first Viceroy of New Spain. He held the position from 1535 to 1550 and played a key role in the early administration and governance of the Spanish colonies in the Americas. Mendoza implemented policies to promote Spanish control, colonization, and conversion of indigenous peoples, laying the foundation for Spanish rule in Mexico and establishing the framework for colonial governance in the region.

Alonso de Ojeda

Alonso de Ojeda was a Spanish conquistador and explorer who participated in several expeditions to the Americas. He sailed with Christopher Columbus on his second voyage and later led his own expedition along the northern coast of South America. Ojeda is most well-known for his role in establishing the first European settlement in present-day Venezuela.

Francisco de Orellana

Francisco de Orellana was a Spanish Conquistador who is known for leading an expedition down the Amazon River in South America. In 1541, Orellana and his crew navigated the entire length of the Amazon River, from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean.

Alonzo Alvarez de Pineda

Alonzo Alvarez de Pineda was a Spanish explorer and cartographer who mapped the Gulf Coast of North America. In 1519, he sailed along the Gulf Coast from Florida to Mexico, mapping and exploring the area. He is credited with creating one of the earliest European maps of the region.

Francisco Pizarro

Francisco Pizarro was a Spanish Conquistador who led the conquest of the Inca Empire in what is now Peru. In 1532, Pizarro and his forces captured the Inca emperor, Atahualpa, marking the beginning of Spanish control over the region. Pizarro’s conquest of the Inca Empire brought vast wealth and territory under Spanish control.

Hernando de Soto

Hernando de Soto was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition through the southeastern United States in the early 16th century. His expedition explored regions including Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas. The expedition was one of the first major European expeditions into the interior of North America.

Francisco de Ulloa

Francisco de Ulloa was a Spanish explorer who sailed along the western coast of present-day Mexico and the Gulf of California in the early 16th century. In 1539, Ulloa embarked on an expedition to explore and map the Gulf of California, becoming the first known European to do so.

Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca

Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca was a Spanish explorer who is best known for his accounts of the Narváez Expedition and his subsequent journey across the present-day southern United States. Shipwrecked near present-day Galveston, Texas, in 1528, Cabeza de Vaca and a small group of survivors embarked on a remarkable journey across Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and northern Mexico.

Angel de Villafane

Angel de Villafane, a Spanish naval officer and explorer of the 16th century, undertook numerous expeditions that contributed to Spain’s colonization efforts and the establishment of its empire in the Americas. His voyages encompassed regions such as the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, where he explored uncharted territories, charted new routes, and expanded Spanish knowledge of the New World.

Migration and Settlement — Settlements

L’anse aux meadows (11th century).

L’Anse aux Meadows is an archaeological site located in Newfoundland, Canada. Discovered in 1960, it is the only confirmed Norse settlement in North America. L’Anse aux Meadows dates to the 11th Century and provides evidence of the Vikings’ presence in the New World, predating Columbus’s arrival by several centuries.

La Navidad (1492)

La Navidad was the first settlement established by Christopher Columbus during his first voyage to the Americas in 1492. Located in present-day Haiti, it was named after the ship Santa María, which had run aground nearby. The settlement did not last long, as it was destroyed by the Taino People.

La Isabella (1493)

La Isabella was the first permanent Spanish settlement in the Americas. It was founded by Christopher Columbus during his second voyage in 1493 on the island of Hispaniola, present-day Dominican Republic. Named after Queen Isabella of Castile, the settlement served as the capital of the Spanish colony and played an important role in the early Spanish colonization and administration of the region.

Santo Domingo (1496)

Santo Domingo, officially known as Santo Domingo de Guzmán, is the capital city of the Dominican Republic and the oldest continuously inhabited European-founded settlement in the Americas. It was founded by Bartholomew Columbus, the brother of Christopher Columbus, in 1496. Santo Domingo served as the administrative and economic center of Spanish colonial rule in the Caribbean and played a vital role in the development of the Spanish Empire’s presence in the New World.

Caparra (1508)

Caparra was the first Spanish colonial settlement established in Puerto Rico. Founded in 1508 by Juan Ponce de León, it served as the original capital of Puerto Rico until it was relocated to San Juan in 1521.

Panama City (1519)

Panama City, also known as Panama Viejo or Old Panama, was a historic Spanish settlement founded in 1519 by Pedro Arias Dávila, also known as Pedrarias. Located on the Pacific coast of present-day Panama, it served as the first European settlement on the mainland of the Americas’ Pacific coast. Panama City became an important location for Spanish colonial activities, serving as a starting point for expeditions to explore and conquer the Inca Empire in South America. The city was a trade center and played a key role in the transportation of gold and silver from the Spanish Colonies in South America to Europe. Panama City was destroyed by the Welsh pirate Henry Morgan in 1671, and the capital was subsequently moved to the current location of Panama City, Panama.

Veracruz (1519)

Veracruz is a major port city on the Gulf of Mexico coast in eastern Mexico. It was the site of the first Spanish settlement in Mexico. Hernán Cortés founded the settlement of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz in 1519 as a strategic base to use for his conquest of the Aztec Empire. Veracruz became an important hub for Spanish colonization, trade, and the Transatlantic Slave Trade

San Miguel de Guadalupe (1526)

San Miguel de Guadalupe was a short-lived Spanish colony established in 1526 on the coast of present-day South Carolina. Led by Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, the settlement aimed to establish a Spanish presence and exploit the region’s resources. However, due to harsh conditions, disease, and conflicts with indigenous peoples, the colony was abandoned within a few months.

Puebla de Zaragoza (1531)

Puebla de Zaragoza, known as Puebla, is a city in central Mexico. It was founded in 1531 by Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés. Puebla played an important role during the Colonial Era as a center for Spanish control in the region.

Santiago de Querétaro (1531)

Santiago de Querétaro, also known as Querétaro, is a city in central Mexico. It was founded by the Otomi People before the arrival of the Spanish. In 1531, the Spanish Conquistador Hernán Pérez Bocanegra established the Spanish colonial settlement. Querétaro became an important religious, political, and economic center during the Colonial Era. Later, it played a key role in the Mexican War of Independence.

Charlesbourg-Royal (1541)

Charlesbourg-Royal was a French settlement located near present-day Quebec City, Canada. It was established in 1541 by Jacques Cartier, the French explorer, during his third voyage to North America. The settlement was intended to serve as a base for the colonization of the area and to secure French territorial claims. However, the harsh conditions, conflicts with local peoples, and lack of supplies led to its abandonment in 1543.

Nueva Ciudad de Mechuacán (Morelia) (1541)

Nueva Ciudad de Mechuacán, later known as Morelia, is a city in the state of Michoacán, Mexico. It was founded in 1541 by Antonio de Mendoza, the first Viceroy of New Spain, as part of Spain’s efforts to establish control over the region. Morelia became an important political, economic, and cultural center during the Colonial Era.

Pensacola (1559)

Pensacola is a city in the state of Florida, United States. Initially established by the Spanish in 1559, Pensacola served as a strategic outpost for Spain in the Gulf of Mexico and played a role in the broader Spanish colonization efforts in North America. Over the centuries, it changed hands multiple times between various European powers, including Spain, France, and Britain.

Charlesfort (1562)

Charlesfort was a French settlement established in 1562 on Parris Island, present-day South Carolina. It was founded by French explorer Jean Ribault and served as a strategic outpost during France’s attempts to colonize the southeastern region of North America. However, the settlement faced challenges and was abandoned.

Fort Caroline (1564)

Fort Caroline was a French Huguenot settlement established in 1564 in present-day Jacksonville, Florida. Led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière, the settlement aimed to establish a French presence in the southeastern part of North America. Fort Caroline became a focal point of conflict between the French and Spanish, eventually resulting in the Spanish destroying the fort in 1565 and establishing St. Augustine, a Spanish colony, in its place.

St. Augustine (1565)

St. Augustine, founded in 1565 by Spanish explorer Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, is the oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement in the United States. Located in present-day Florida, St. Augustine served as a military outpost and a hub for Spanish colonial activity in the region.

Ajacán Mission (1570)

Ajacán Mission was a failed Spanish Jesuit mission established in 1570 in present-day Virginia. The mission aimed to convert and establish a settlement among the people in the region. However, the mission faced numerous challenges and was abandoned.

Roanoke Island (1585)

Roanoke Island is an island located off the coast of present-day North Carolina. It holds historical significance as the site of the Roanoke Colony, an early English attempt at establishing a permanent settlement in North America. The colony, also known as the “Lost Colony,” was established in 1585 by Sir Walter Raleigh. However, the colonists faced numerous challenges and mysteriously disappeared. The fate of the Roanoke Colony remains unknown.

Port Royal (1603)

Port Royal, established in 1603, was an English settlement located in present-day Nova Scotia, Canada. It was one of the earliest English colonies in North America. Port Royal served as a base for fur trading and fishing activities, and it played a significant role in the expansion of English presence in the region. The settlement was later captured by the French in 1613.

St. Croix Island (1604)

St. Croix Island, located in present-day Maine, was the site of a French settlement established in 1604. Led by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons, the settlement aimed to establish a fur trading outpost and served as the first French attempt at permanent colonization in North America. However, the harsh winter and scarcity of resources led to significant hardships, resulting in the abandonment of the settlement the following year.

Popham Colony (1607)

The Popham Colony, also known as the Sagadahoc Colony , was an English settlement established in 1607 in present-day Maine. Sponsored by the Plymouth Company, the colony aimed to establish a profitable trading outpost in North America. Led by George Popham and Raleigh Gilbert, the colony faced numerous challenges, including harsh weather, scarcity of resources, and conflicts with the indigenous people. The colony lasted for just over a year before it was abandoned due to hardships and lack of support.

Jamestown Colony (1607)

Jamestown Colony was the first permanent English settlement established in North America . Founded in 1607 in present-day Virginia, it was sponsored by the Virginia Company of London. The colony faced numerous challenges, including harsh conditions, food shortages, and conflicts with Native Americans. However, it survived and grew due to the leadership of figures like John Smith, and John Rolfe, and the introduction of tobacco as a cash crop. Jamestown Colony marked the beginning of English colonization in America and played a crucial role in shaping the future of the Virginia Colony, the Chesapeake Bay Region, and North America.

Migration and Settlement — Business

Joint-stock companies.

Joint-Stock Companies were a type of business organization that emerged in Europe during the early Colonial Era. They were formed by the merging of individual investments into a single enterprise, with each investor receiving a share of the company’s profits in proportion to their investment. Joint-Stock Companies were often used to fund long-term ventures that included immigration and the establishment of settlements.

Company of Merchant Adventurers of London

The Company of Merchant Adventurers of London was a prominent English trading company established in the 16th century. It was composed of wealthy merchants who engaged in international trade, particularly in northern Europe. The company had a monopoly on the trade of English cloth in certain regions and played a significant role in expanding English commerce and influence. It established trading posts and networks across Europe, particularly in the Low Countries and Baltic regions, and contributed to the growth of England’s economic power during the early modern period.

Muscovy Company

The Muscovy Company, also known as the Russian Company, or the Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands, was an English trading company founded in the 16th century. It held a monopoly on English trade with Russia and the surrounding regions. The company sought to establish trade routes to Russia and to engage in commerce with the Muscovite tsardom. The Muscovy Company played a crucial role in developing trade between England and Russia, importing goods such as furs, timber, and Russian products. It established important trading posts and helped pave the way for future English-Russian trade relations.

Virginia Company of London

The Virginia Company of London was a Joint Stock Company founded in 1606 by King James I of England with the purpose of establishing colonies in the New World. The company received a charter from the king granting it the right to settle and govern a large area of land in what is now modern-day Virginia. The company funded the establishment of the Jamestown colony, which was the first permanent English settlement in the New World. Typically referred to as just the “Virginia Company,” it played a key role in the colonization and development of the region, but it eventually lost its charter and was dissolved in 1624.

Virginia Company of Plymouth

The Virginia Company of Plymouth, also known as the Plymouth Company, was an English Joint Stock Company established in 1606. It was one of the two companies granted charters by King James I to colonize North America, the other being the Virginia Company of London. The Plymouth Company wanted to establish settlements in the northern parts of Virginia, which included present-day New England. The Plymouth Company’s charter was eventually revoked, and its territory was absorbed by the Massachusetts Bay Company.

Migration and Settlement — Colonists

Virginia dare.

Virginia Dare was the first English child born in the Americas. She was born on August 18, 1587, in the Roanoke Colony. Her birth coincided with the early English attempts at colonization in the New World. Unfortunately, the fate of Virginia Dare and the rest of the Roanoke Colony remains unknown, as they mysteriously disappeared, giving rise to the legend of the “Lost Colony.”

Richard Grenville

Sir Richard Grenville was an English naval commander and explorer during the Elizabethan era. He played a significant role in the early colonization efforts in North America. In 1585, Grenville led an expedition to establish the first English colony in the Americas on Roanoke Island.

Thomas Harriot

Thomas Harriot was an English mathematician, astronomer, and natural philosopher who made important contributions to the study of science during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. He was part of the Roanoke Colony Expedition and is known for his observations and documentation of the New World, including his studies of indigenous people and the natural environment. Harriot’s work on the Roanoke Colony provided valuable insights into early English encounters with the Native American Indian population.

Sir Ralph Lane was an English explorer and military officer who was part of the Roanoke Colony Expedition. He served as the first Governor of the colony when it was established in 1585.

John Rolfe was an English settler in Jamestown Colony and is credited with introducing tobacco as a cash crop to Virginia. His successful cultivation of a high-quality strain of tobacco known as “Orinoco” brought economic stability to the colony and played a significant role in the colony’s prosperity. In 1614, Rolfe married Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan. The “Peace of Pocahontas” ended the First Anglo-Powhatan War , establishing peace between colonists and Powhatan Confederacy. The marriage also encouraged cultural exchange and cooperation between the two groups.

John White was an English artist and colonist who was also part of the Roanoke Colony Expedition. He served as the colony’s Governor during its final attempt at settlement in 1587. White is well known for his watercolor illustrations documenting the flora, fauna, and Native American cultures of the New World. He returned to England in 1587 to gather supplies but was delayed due to the Anglo-Spanish War. When he finally returned to Roanoke Island in 1590, the colony had disappeared, including his granddaughter, Virginia Dare.

Migration and Settlement — Causes of European Immigration

Black plague.

The Black Plague, also known as the Black Death, was a devastating pandemic that swept across Europe in the 14th century. It is believed to have originated in Asia and spread through trade routes, primarily carried by fleas on rats.

The Crusades were a series of religious and military campaigns initiated by European Christians in the 11th through 13th centuries. The Crusaders aimed to reclaim and protect Christian holy sites, primarily in the Holy Land, which was under Muslim control.

Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was a movement in the 16th century that sought to reform the Catholic Church and led to the creation of Protestantism, a branch of Christianity that rejected the authority of the Pope and the Catholic Church. The Protestant Reformation was sparked by the teachings of Martin Luther, a German monk who criticized the corruption and excesses of the Catholic Church. John Calvin and others also challenged the teachings and practices of the Church.

Renaissance

The Renaissance was a period of intellectual, artistic, and cultural rebirth that spanned roughly from the 14th to the 17th century. It originated in Italy and gradually spread throughout Europe. The Renaissance marked a shift from the medieval worldview to a renewed focus on humanism, exploration, scientific inquiry, and the revival of classical knowledge and art.

Spanish Armada

The Spanish Armada was a fleet of ships sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 with the goal of invading England and overthrowing Queen Elizabeth I . The Armada was defeated by the English navy in a series of battles, most notably the Battle of Gravelines. The victory of the English navy marked a turning point in European naval warfare and solidified England’s position as a major naval power while weakening Spain’s dominance. In the wake of the Armada’s defeat, England became determined to establish colonies in the New World as part of its Mercantile System.

Spanish Inquisition

The Spanish Inquisition was a state-sanctioned institution established in the late 15th century by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castille. It aimed to enforce religious orthodoxy and eliminate heresy, primarily targeting Jews, Muslims, and conversos — Jews converted to Christianity — who were suspected of practicing their former faith secretly. The Spanish Inquisition employed methods such as torture, trials, and confiscation of property to enforce religious conformity. Its impact on Spanish society and the persecution it carried had significant consequences, including the expulsion of Jews and Muslims from Spain.

Migration and Settlement — Causes of European Exploration

Anglo-spanish war.

The Anglo-Spanish War refers to a series of conflicts between England and Spain during the 16th and 17th centuries. These conflicts were driven by competition for power, wealth, and influence, both in Europe and overseas territories. Notable events include the Spanish Armada campaign in 1588. The war had significant implications for naval power, colonial expansion, and trade, ultimately contributing to the decline of Spanish dominance and the rise of English supremacy on the high seas.

Dutch Golden Age

The Dutch Golden Age refers to a period of economic, cultural, and scientific prosperity in the 17th century in the Dutch Republic. During this era, the Dutch dominated global trade, establishing a vast colonial empire and becoming one of the wealthiest and most powerful nations in the world. Following the end of the Anglo-Spanish War, England challenged the Netherlands for control of trade on the high seas, leading to the passage of the Navigation Acts.

English Reformation

The English Reformation refers to the religious and political changes in England during the 16th Century, when the Church of England separated from the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. It was driven by both religious and political motives, including King Henry VIII’s desire for the annulment of his marriage and the influence of Protestant ideas. The English Reformation resulted in the establishment of the Church of England.

European Expansion

European Expansion refers to the expansion of European influence and control in the Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries. European Expansion was driven by a variety of factors, including the desire for land, resources, and wealth, as well as the desire to spread Christianity and European culture to the New World.

Fountain of Youth

The Fountain of Youth is a mythical spring believed to grant eternal youth and vitality to those who drink from it. The legend of the Fountain of Youth captivated the imagination of early European explorers, most notably Juan Ponce de León, who searched for it in present-day Florida in the early 16th century.

Feudalism was a social and economic system that dominated Medieval Europe. It was based on the exchange of land for military service and the hierarchical relationships between lords and vassals. In the Feudal System, the land was owned by nobles or monarchs and granted to vassals in exchange for their loyalty and military support. Feudalism provided social order and structure but also reinforced inequality and limited social mobility. Under the Feudal System, the lower classes had little to no opportunity to own land of their own. The opportunity to own land in the New World played an important role in European immigration.

God, Gold, and Glory

“God, Gold, and Glory” is a phrase often used to summarize the motivations and driving forces behind European Exploration, colonization, and conquest during the Age of Exploration. It represents the three primary objectives that inspired and justified European powers’ actions in the New World and beyond.

Land-Based Trade Routes

Land-based trade routes refer to the networks of overland routes that facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures between different regions and civilizations. Examples of significant land-based trade routes include the Silk Road, connecting Europe and Asia, and the Trans-Saharan trade routes, linking Sub-Saharan Africa with North Africa and the Mediterranean world. These trade routes played a crucial role in the exchange of commodities, technologies, and cultural diffusion.

Mercantile System

The Mercantile System, also known as Mercantilism, was an economic policy prevalent in Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries. It aimed to increase a nation’s wealth and power through the promotion of exports, the acquisition of precious metals, and the establishment of colonies. Mercantilist policies typically involved protectionism, such as imposing tariffs and promoting domestic industries. The goal was to achieve a positive balance of trade by exporting more goods than importing. Mercantilism played a significant role in shaping European colonialism and trade during the Colonial Era.

New France was the French colonial empire in North America from the 16th to the 18th centuries. It included regions such as present-day Canada, the Great Lakes, and parts of the Mississippi River Valley. New France was primarily focused on Fur Trade and establishing friendly relations with Native American tribes. French colonists, known as Canadiens or Acadians, developed a distinctive culture and society in the region. However, conflicts with the British, such as the French and Indian War, eventually led to the cession of most French territories in North America to the British Empire.

New Spain was the Spanish colonial empire in North America and the Caribbean during the 16th to 19th centuries. It encompassed a vast region including present-day Mexico, Central America, the southwestern United States, and parts of the Caribbean. New Spain was characterized by Spanish colonization, the imposition of Spanish culture and institutions, and the exploitation of indigenous peoples and resources. It played a crucial role in the Spanish Empire’s economic and political power, serving as a source of wealth through mining, agriculture, and trade.

Quivira was a legendary city believed to be located in the interior of North America, described as a wealthy place filled with gold and precious gems. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led an expedition in search of Quivira in 1541, exploring the present-day American Midwest, including parts of present-day Kansas.

Seven Cities of Cibola

The Seven Cities of Cibola refers to a mythical area of seven wealthy cities believed to be located in the southwestern United States. The legend of the Seven Cities of Cibola motivated several Spanish expeditions, including Francisco Vásquez de Coronado’s, in search of great wealth and cities made of gold.

Trading Post Empire

A trading post empire is a type of colonial empire that was primarily focused on establishing trading posts and maintaining control over strategic points along trade routes. Instead of large-scale colonization, trading post empires, such as the Portuguese Empire in the Indian Ocean and the Dutch East India Company, aimed to control trade and secure access to valuable resources. They often built fortified trading posts and relied on local alliances and commercial dominance rather than direct territorial control. These trading post empires played a significant role in European expansion and the development of global trade networks.

Trading Post System

The Trading Post System was a system of economic exchange that emerged in North America during the Colonial Era. It involved the establishment of Trading Posts, typically located in strategic locations such as along rivers or at the confluence of trade routes, where European traders could exchange goods with Native American tribes for furs, pelts, and other valuable commodities.

Water-Based Trade Routes

Water-Based Trade Routes refer to the routes of maritime trade that connected different regions and civilizations through the seas and oceans. Notable water-based trade routes include the Mediterranean Sea, which connected Europe, Africa, and Asia, and the Indian Ocean trade routes, linking the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and East Africa. These trade routes facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies, and they were essential for the growth of global commerce and cultural exchange.

Politics and Power — Monarchs, Politicians, Clergy

Elizabeth i.

Elizabeth I, also known as the “Virgin Queen,” was the Queen of England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603. She is considered one of the most influential monarchs in English history. Her reign was marked by political stability and the expansion of England’s influence in the world. Her reign saw England’s defeat of the Spanish Armada and the establishment of England as a major naval and colonial power.

Ferdinand and Isabella

King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella were the joint rulers of the Kingdom of Castile and the Kingdom of Aragon in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. They are best known for their role in the unification of Spain, as well as their support for the voyages of exploration led by Christopher Columbus. Ferdinand and Isabella are also known for their support of the Catholic Church and their role in the Spanish Inquisition, a period of persecution of non-Catholics in Spain.

Francis I was the King of France from 1515 to 1547. He sponsored several exploratory expeditions, including those led by Giovanni da Verrazzano, Jacques Cartier, and Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval. These expeditions aimed to find new trade routes and territories and expanded French influence in North America.

Richard Hakluyt the Elder

Richard Hakluyt the Elder was an English geographer and writer during the Elizabethan era. He was a key figure in promoting English exploration and colonization. Hakluyt’s most notable work was “The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation,” a collection of travel accounts and geographical information that aimed to inspire English exploration and establish a colonial empire.

Richard Hakluyt the Younger

Richard Hakluyt the Younger was an English clergyman, geographer, and editor who carried on the work of his uncle, Richard Hakluyt the Elder. He continued to collect and publish accounts of voyages and explorations, further promoting English expansion and colonization. Hakluyt the Younger played a crucial role in disseminating knowledge about overseas exploration and encouraging English colonization efforts during the early 17th century.

Henry VII was the King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1485 until his death in 1509. He was the founder of the Tudor Dynasty and played a crucial role in consolidating power after the Wars of the Roses. Henry VII sponsored voyages of exploration, including those led by John Cabot, in search of new trade routes and territories.

Henry VIII was the King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547. He is one of the most well-known monarchs in English history. Henry VIII is notable for his role in the English Reformation, which resulted in the separation of the Church of England from the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. His desire to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn led to the establishment of the Church of England, with Henry VIII as its Supreme Head. His reign also saw the dissolution of the monasteries, the establishment of the Royal Navy, and significant political and religious changes in England. Henry VIII had six wives and is known for his efforts to secure a male heir, which led to divorces, annulments, and beheadings. Queen Elizabeth I was his daughter.

James I was the monarch of England and Ireland from 1603 to 1625. He granted the charter to the Virginia Company of London, allowing the establishment of Jamestown Colony in the New World. He played a pivotal role in encouraging English colonization efforts and providing support to the Virginia Company. During his time on the throne, there were significant developments in English colonization, exploration, and overseas trade, setting the stage for further expansion and influence in the New World.

Philip II of Spain was a powerful monarch who ruled over the Spanish Empire from 1556 to 1598. He was the son of Charles V and Isabella of Portugal. Philip II’s reign was marked by Spanish dominance in Europe, extensive colonial expansion, and his strong commitment to Catholicism. He launched the Spanish Armada in an attempt to invade England and restore Catholicism, but the defeat of the Armada marked a turning point in the balance of power in Europe.

Pope Alexander VI

Pope Alexander VI, born Rodrigo Borgia, was the pope of the Catholic Church from 1492 until his death in 1503. He is known for his controversial and corrupt actions, particularly in relation to the colonization of the Americas. Pope Alexander VI issued several papal bulls, including the infamous Inter Caetera, which granted Spain and Portugal the rights to explore and colonize newly discovered lands and impose Christian dominion over the people living in the New World

Politics and Power — Treaties

Inter caetera.

Inter Caetera is a papal bull issued by Pope Alexander VI on May 4, 1493. The bull divided the newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal, providing them with exclusive rights to explore, colonize, and convert the people they found living there. It established the Line of Demarcation, a boundary dividing the world between the two nations. Spain was granted rights to lands west of the line, while Portugal had rights to lands east of the line. Inter Caetera played a crucial role in shaping European colonial expansion in the Americas and contributed to the subsequent era of Spanish and Portuguese colonization.

Line of Demarcation

The Line of Demarcation, also known as the Papal Line of Demarcation, was an imaginary line established by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. It was a division agreed upon by Spain and Portugal to divide the newly discovered lands outside of Europe. The line was drawn by Pope Alexander VI in the papal bull Inter Caetera. The purpose of the line was to avoid conflicts between the two Catholic powers and to define their spheres of influence in the exploration and colonization of the New World. The line ran from pole to pole, dividing the world into two zones: the eastern zone granted to Portugal and the western zone granted to Spain. Portugal received rights to lands and territories east of the line, including present-day Brazil, while Spain gained rights to territories west of the line, encompassing most of the Americas. Over time, the line was adjusted through various treaties and negotiations as other European powers entered the scene of exploration and colonization.

Treaty of Alcáçovas

The Treaty of Alcáçovas was a treaty signed in 1479 between the kingdoms of Portugal and Castile (Spain). It marked the end of the territorial disputes between the two kingdoms and established spheres of influence for each country in the Atlantic Ocean and Africa. The treaty recognized Portuguese control over the Cape Verde Islands, Madeira, and the Azores, while Castile gained control over the Canary Islands. It played a significant role in defining the areas of exploration and colonization for Portugal and Spain during the Age of Exploration.

Treaty of Tordesillas

The Treaty of Tordesillas was signed in 1494 between the Catholic Monarchs of Spain and Portugal and divided the New World between the two countries. The treaty was based on the papal bull Inter Caetera, which had been issued by Pope Alexander VI in 1493, and it established a Line of Demarcation that gave Spain the rights to the lands to the west of the line and Portugal the rights to the lands to the east. The Treaty of Tordesillas helped to shape the modern-day borders of many countries in the Americas.

Politics and Power — Political Structures and Groups

Conquistadors.

Conquistadors were Spanish explorers and conquerors who played a pivotal role in the colonization of the Americas during the 16th century. Driven by a desire for wealth, land, and spreading Christianity, the Conquistadors carried out expeditions in the New World, particularly in present-day Mexico, Central America and South America. Notable Conquistadors include Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, who conquered the Aztec and Inca Empires, respectively, and established Spanish dominance in the region.

Huguenots were French Protestants who emerged during the 16th and 17th centuries as followers of the Reformed tradition of Protestantism. They were primarily Calvinists and faced religious persecution in Catholic-dominated France. Many Huguenots sought religious freedom and migrated to other countries, including England, the Netherlands, and the American colonies. Their presence in the Americas, particularly in New Netherland, made religious freedom a key benefit of the colony. 

Nation-State

A Nation-State is a sovereign state composed of a single nation or group of people who share a common identity, culture, and language. Nation-states are characterized by their strong central governments and the presence of a single dominant culture within their borders. Nation-States are the dominant form of political organization in the modern world, and they are typically characterized by a high degree of territorial integrity and political stability. Nation-States started to develop in Europe during the 15th Century.

The Puritans were a group of English Protestants who sought to “purify” the Church of England from what they considered to be remaining Catholic practices and beliefs. They emphasized a strict religious and moral code, simple worship, and a personal relationship with God. The Puritans played a significant role in the colonization of New England , seeking religious freedom and establishing colonies such as Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Separatists

Separatists were a radical group inside the Puritans who believed that the Church of England was beyond reform and chose to separate from it entirely. They sought religious freedom and the ability to practice their faith independently. Separatists faced persecution in England and sought refuge in the New World, where they played a significant role in the early colonization of America and the development of religious tolerance. The most well-known group of Separatists was the Pilgrims , who established the Plymouth Colony in 1620. 

Politics and Power — Events and Ages

Conquest of the americas.

The Conquest of the Americas refers to the process of European colonization of the Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Conquest of the Americas was a complex process that involved the expansion of European influence and control over the region, as well as the exploitation and oppression of Indigenous peoples and the introduction of new diseases and technologies. The Conquest of the Americas had a significant impact on the history and development of the Americas, and it continues to be a controversial and divisive topic in the history of the region.

Reconquista

The Reconquista refers to the centuries-long process of Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula reclaiming territories from Muslim rule. It began in the 8th century and culminated in 1492 with the Fall of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold in Spain. The Reconquista had profound political, cultural, and religious implications, as it led to the establishment of Christian kingdoms and the consolidation of Catholicism as the dominant religion in the region.

Age of Exploration

The Age of Exploration, also known as the Age of Discovery, refers to the period from the 15th to the 17th centuries when European explorers ventured into uncharted territories, seeking new trade routes and knowledge. It was driven by various factors, including the desire for wealth, fame, and spreading Christianity. European nations, such as Spain, Portugal, England, and France, sponsored voyages of exploration to Africa, Asia, and the Americas, leading to significant geographic, scientific, and cultural discoveries, as well as colonization and the establishment of global trade networks.

An astrolabe is a historical astronomical instrument used to measure the altitude of celestial bodies and determine the time and location. It consists of a circular disk with marked degrees and a pivoting arm with sights to observe the position of stars and planets. Astrolabes were used by ancient astronomers and navigators for celestial navigation, determining latitude, and making astronomical calculations. They played a crucial role in early exploration and navigation, aiding in charting routes and guiding ships across vast distances.

A caravel was a small, highly maneuverable sailing ship that was used by the Portuguese and Spanish during the Age of Exploration. The ships were typically around 50-60 feet long and had a narrow hull with a high, rounded stern and a lateen sail. Caravels were used for long voyages of exploration and were instrumental in the European discovery and colonization of the New World.

Cartography

Cartography is the art and science of creating maps and charts. It involves the gathering of geographic information, the interpretation of data, and the representation of the Earth’s surface on a two-dimensional plane. Cartography played a vital role in navigation and exploration, enabling explorers to record and convey geographical knowledge, chart new territories, and plan sea routes accurately.

Magnetic Compass

The magnetic compass is an ancient navigational instrument used to determine direction relative to the Earth’s magnetic field. It consists of a magnetized needle or card that aligns with the Earth’s magnetic north-south axis. The magnetic compass revolutionized navigation by allowing sailors to accurately determine their heading, enabling them to traverse the open seas with greater precision and confidence.

Printing Press

The printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century, revolutionized the production and dissemination of information. It allowed for the mass production of books and other printed materials, making knowledge more accessible to a wider audience. The printing press facilitated the spread of scientific, religious, and philosophical ideas, fostering intellectual and cultural advancements during the Renaissance and beyond. It had a profound impact on communication, education, and the development of modern society.

A sextant is a navigational instrument used to measure the angle between celestial objects, such as the sun, moon, and stars, and the horizon. It typically consists of a graduated arc, a sighting mechanism, and a movable arm with a small telescope or sighting device. By measuring the angle between celestial objects and the horizon, sailors could calculate their latitude and navigate with greater accuracy.

Sternpost Rudder

The sternpost rudder is a key maritime invention that revolutionized ship navigation and maneuverability. Developed in ancient China during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the sternpost rudder is a vertical blade attached to the stern or rear of a ship. It replaced the earlier side-mounted steering oars, providing better control and stability to vessels. The sternpost rudder allowed ships to steer more effectively, enabling longer voyages, improved maneuvering in adverse conditions, and facilitated the exploration and expansion of maritime trade routes.

• Written by Randal Rust

Premium Content

• HISTORY MAGAZINE

240 men started Magellan's voyage around the world. Only 18 finished it.

The explorer died on a Philippines beach in April 1521, joining the scores who perished in Spain's quest to circumnavigate the globe.

As it moored under Seville’s imposing skyline on September 8, 1522, the Victoria   may not have stood out as anything exceptional among the bustle of Spanish ships arriving from the Americas. When 18 men stepped off board, “leaner than old, worn-out nags,” as one of them later recalled, they stepped into the history books as the first people to have sailed entirely around the world.

It had been a brutal voyage, led by the brilliant, if ruthless, Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan. When they set out from Seville, three years before in summer 1519, they were a crew of 240 manning five ships. A series of blows—including starvation, illness, mutiny, executions, and the death of their leader—decimated their numbers and their fleet before returning to Spain.

These men had, however, completed their global journey, despite the violence and greed that marred it from the outset. The venture would be remembered for the skill and endurance of many of its members. As the first Europeans to enter the eastern Pacific, the expedition radically altered Europe’s understanding of the world, while posterity would lionize Magellan for an accomplishment that he never lived to see.

Despite the aura of heroism that has formed around Magellan, his voyage was not driven by geographic curiosity, but by trade and Spain’s struggle to surpass Portugal. Following Christopher Columbus’s voyages of the 1490s and the discovery of a landmass to the west, the two premier naval powers competed to control the new vistas opening before them. In 1493 Pope Alexander VI drew a line from north to south down the Atlantic, decreeing that Spain could exploit the new continent to the west. The papal bull did not specify, however, that Portugal could exploit the territory to the east of the line.  

Portugal cried foul, pointing out that the pope, a Borgia of Spanish descent, was not an impartial arbiter. To avoid a war, direct talks opened between Portugal and Spain and the line was moved farther west in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas. This allowed Portugal more room to maneuver down the eastern coastline of Africa. Happily for the Portuguese, Pedro Álvares Cabral’s 1500 discovery of the eastern coastline of South America fell on Portugal’s side of the 1494 line.

Portugal had already bested Spain in the exploration race, when in 1497 Vasco de Gama was the first European to discover a sea route to India around Africa. While this period of global exploration is often associated with the Americas, both powers were also seeking riches in the Asia-Pacific. It was there that Magellan gained experience vital to his later expedition. ( Was Magellan the first to sail around the world? Think again. )

A sea change

Born Fernão de Magalhães in northern Portugal in 1480, Magellan grew up in a noble family. At age 10 he was sent to Lisbon to train as a page in the court of Queen Leonora. He came of age as Europe began shaking off its medieval sensibilities and looking outward. The few sources on his early life suggest he became fascinated with maps and charts, an interest that may have coincided with the news, at age 13, of the Spanish expedition under Columbus that had made landfall in the Americas.

Portuguese eastward expansion began to move rapidly after Vasco de Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1497. By 1505 the 25-year-old Magellan was with the Portuguese fleet heading around the Cape, and up the other side, to East Africa. The aim of King Manuel of Portugal was to wrest control of the entire Indian Ocean from the Arabs so as to control trade with India.

In 1507 Magellan participated in a naval battle that consolidated Portuguese power over the Indian Ocean. More Portuguese victories followed in Goa (western India), and in 1511 the Portuguese seized Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. The city overlooks the strait through which the spices from modern-day Indonesia were funneled westward. By controlling Malacca, Portugal could exert control over the spice trade.

An older relative (and possible cousin) of Magellan, Francisco Serrão, had also forged a dramatic career as a sailor and took part in the seizure of Malacca before going on an expedition to the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, in 1512. His venture would later inspire Magellan’s own goal to reach them by sailing west from Europe.

Magellan took part in the battle for Malacca and honed his navigational skills during Portugal’s eastern victories. After returning to Europe, in 1514 he entered into a bitter dispute with King Manuel over the king’s refusal to reward him. Having used up all his appeals, Magellan rejected his native land and traveled to the Spanish court at Valladolid in 1517 to offer his services to the Spanish king Charles I (who would become Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in June 1519). From that day, Fernão de Magalhães would be known by his Spanish name, Fernando de Magallanes.

By offering his services to Spain, Magellan was not engaging in any truly scandalous behavior. Seafaring expertise often crossed borders, and crews were drawn from different nations. Columbus too, a Genoan from northern Italy, had offered himself to the Spanish crown after initially working for the Portuguese. Magellan’s plan was strikingly similar to Columbus’s from nearly 30 years earlier: to sail west to bring back spices from the Moluccas, the Spice Islands of Indonesia.   ( Discover the secrets hidden in a 500-year-old map used by Columbus. )

Citing the theories of other navigators at the time, Magellan postulated that a strait cut through the Americas to a sea whose eastern shore was first glimpsed by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513. If he could find it, this passage would allow Spain a kind of “back-door” access to the Moluccas, bypassing Portugal’s Cape route. Magellan’s reputation as a sailor and his knowledge of the east convinced Charles, and the expedition received royal assent.

Not all were happy that this Portuguese interloper had gained such favor with the king. The nobility and the Casa de Contratación (the state body that controlled such expeditions) took every opportunity to obstruct Magellan’s preparations. Under two-thirds of the crew were Spaniards; of the foreigners, 24 were Portuguese and 27 were Italian.

Marvels and mutiny

Among the crew was a young Venetian nobleman named Antonio Pigafetta, a student of astronomy and geography. Pigafetta’s lively journal became history’s principal written source for detailed information on the entire voyage.

“On Monday, August 10, St. Lawrence’s day, the fleet, having been supplied with all the things necessary for the sea, made ready to leave the harbor of Seville,” Pigafetta recorded in his log. Five ships in total—the San Antonio,   the Concepción,   the Victoria,   the Santiago , and the flagship, the Trinidad —struck out west from Spain via the Canary Islands. Pigafetta’s observations were not solely nautical. He took a lively interest in geography and zoology and science, noting different kinds of birds and wildlife.

While Pigafetta wrote his log, Magellan was deeply concerned about his authority. He was officially the supreme commander, but prior to departure, pressure from the Spanish authorities had forced him to accept a nobleman, Juan de Cartagena, as the voyage’s second-in-command. This decision led to violent power struggles during the voyage. Early on, Magellan was forced to arrest and demote Cartagena for insubordination. As a royal appointee, he was otherwise untouchable, but his resentful presence would prove nearly catastrophic for Magellan later.

The coast of modern-day Brazil, which Europeans had only been aware of for 20 years, was a source of wonder. But it was its inhabitants that captured Pigafetta’s attention most. He recorded in his journal that some of the people of “Verdin” (as he called it)

live a hundred, or a hundred and twenty, or a hundred and forty years, and more; they go naked, both men and women. Their dwellings are houses that are rather long . . . [and] in each of these houses . . . there dwells a family of a hundred persons, who make a great noise. In this place they have boats, which are made of a tree, all in one piece, which they call “canoo.” These are not made with iron instruments, for they have not got any . . . Into these thirty or forty men enter.  

Pigafetta’s writings revealed a condescending attitude toward the indigenous peoples. His descriptions of the peoples he meets in Patagonia, the Pacific Islands, and lands in Asia are centered on the amount of clothing worn, physical traits including skin color, height, and build, and whether they could be converted to Christianity. He recorded certain words from their languages, many of which related to commodities that could be of use to colonial Spain. ( See a shipwreck from explorer Vasco da Gama's fleet. )

The small armada sailed south, scanning for any strait or opening in the great landmass to starboard. A great inlet in early 1520 aroused much excitement. Once it had been ascertained it was not the longed-for strait, but a river mouth (the Río de la Plata), the fleet continued south to San Julián, where, in April, surrounded on all sides by the frozen expanse of Patagonia, a full-scale mutiny was launched against Magellan by the captains of the four other ships.

Played out across five vessels, the scenes were chaotic and confusing, but Magellan prevailed. In the ensuing skirmishes, the rebellious captains of the Victoria and the Concepción were arrested and executed. One of the leaders of the revolt was the demoted and resentful Juan de Cartagena. Magellan opted to maroon him on an island, thus avoiding shedding the blood of a powerful nobleman, while also ridding himself of an incompetent troublemaker. Cartagena’s fate is unknown, but other mutineers were pardoned, including one of the officers, Juan Sebastián Elcano.

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Shortly after the failed mutiny, as resentments still simmered, Magellan lost the Santiago   in a storm. Unbowed, the reduced fleet continued south until glacial conditions forced a halt for two months to provision; then it set out once more. Finally, as Pigafetta records on “the day of the feast of the eleven thousand virgins,” St. Ursula’s Day which falls on October 21, they sighted a strait “surrounded by lofty mountains laden with snow... Had it not been for the captain-general, we would not have found that strait, for we all thought that it was closed on all sides.”

For over a month, buffeted by storms and currents, the fleet ventured down the strait that Charles V would later name for Magellan. The commander named an archipelago they saw on the south side Tierra del Fuego (“land of fire”) in reference to the many bonfires lit there by its indigenous hunter-gatherer peoples, who had occupied this tip of South America for millennia.

In the course of this passage, another ship disappeared: the San Antonio . Pigafetta records it had been believed lost; in fact, it had deserted and was returning to Spain. Equipped now with only three vessels, Magellan and his men “on Wednesday, November 28, 1520, . . . debouched from that strait, engulfing . . . in the Pacific Sea.” They were the first Europeans to enter that vast ocean from its eastern shore.

Hard crossing

After being borne northward along what is today the Chilean coast, Magellan’s fleet finally struck out northwest in search of land beyond. Magellan knew that the Malay archipelago he had visited years before must lie somewhere to the west. To find it, the limping expedition had to sail through rough seas for over three months.

Hunger and disease stalked the crossing. Pigafetta records how he and his crewmates ate sawdust, ox hides, and “biscuit, which was no longer biscuit, but powder of biscuits swarming with worms, and which stank strongly of the urine of rats.” General privation, the lack of food, and illness greatly reduced their numbers. Perhaps the most devastating was scurvy, the distinctive symptoms of which Pigafetta captured: “[I]t was that the upper and lower gums of most of our men grew so much that they could not eat, and in this way so many suffered, that nineteen died.” ( Scurvy killed more people than the American Civil War. )

Savaged by scurvy

While crossing the Pacific, Pigafetta recorded how many of Magellan’s crew seemed to waste away from a horrific illness: Their gums bled, their limbs ulcerated, and delirium addled their minds. Scurvy and its symptoms, which are caused by a lack of vitamin C, would ravage many European expeditions. The captain who completed the Magellan expedition, Juan Sebastián Elcano, succumbed to scurvy on a later voyage, and it killed an estimated two million sailors between the 15th and 18th centuries. The medical properties of vitamin C were not discovered until the 1920s, but it became common wisdom in the 1700s that citrus fruit could be a preventative, a remedy that was resisted by some in the British Navy. It was not until the 1790s that fruit was distributed routinely among crews. 

On March 6, 1521, after 100 days in Pacific waters, the exhausted armada finally was able to make landfall in the Mariana Islands where they restocked the ships and then continued west. Days later, they reached an archipelago (later christened the Philippines by another Spanish explorer) of many inhabited islands that Magellan would attempt to claim for Spain. The crew celebrated mass on the island of Limasawa in late March and then converted the rulers of Cebu Island to Christianity.

Magellan heard that rivals of the Becu who lived on the nearby island of Mactan refused to convert and submit to Spain. Magellan tried to claim their land for Spain and their souls for the church, but the occupants of Mactan Island, led by the chieftain known traditionally as Lapulapu, stood firm in the face of Spanish guns and swords. On April 27, 1521, Magellan led 60 men to the island with an ultimatum to surrender. The islanders refused, and a fierce battle ensued, which Pigafetta recounted:

When we reached land we found the islanders fifteen hundred in number . . . they came down upon us with terrible shouts . . . seeing that the shots of our guns did them little or no harm [they] would not retire, but shouted more loudly, and . . . at the same time drew nearer to us, throwing arrows, javelins, spears hardened in fire, stones, and even mud, so that we could hardly defend ourselves.  

Pigafetta reported that Magellan was killed by Lapulapu and his warriors on the shore. Despite Spanish firepower, the islanders quickly overcame the invaders with their numbers and bravery and drove them back. The Europeans retreated, leaving their commander to die on the beach; Magellan’s body was never recovered. Later, the king of Cebu would turn against the Europeans, too, and kill 26 of them. The remaining Europeans soon departed.

Their numbers dwindling, the surviving crew, under the command of Juan Sebastián Elcano, did finally reach the Moluccas in November 1521. They were able to stock up the ships with spices and goods to bring back to Spain. Having been forced to abandon two of their three remaining ships, the crew would return to Spain in a fleet of one—the Victoria . Ten months later, the ship and its bedraggled crew of 18, including Pigafetta, entered Seville’s harbor. ( Who really discovered Antarctica? )

Final frontier

The first continuous circumnavigation of the world was complete. It took almost exactly three years and, surprisingly, turned a profit. The 381 sacks of cloves brought back by the Victoria   were worth more than all five ships that had set out on the voyage. Despite the hopes and funds invested, it did not translate into immediate meaningful economic benefits for Spain. The treacherous course around the tip of South America was never a practical route for trade with the Moluccas.

Despite the death and destruction brought on by the voyage, many historians believe Magellan’s expedition was a worthy accomplishment. The careful records kept by Pigafetta and others dramatically expanded Europe’s knowledge of the world beyond the Atlantic, giving cartographers a firm sense of the world’s actual size and future navigators intelligence on the conditions and currents of the Pacific Ocean. Europeans had known of the eastern shore of the Pacific since 1513, but Magellan revealed its sheer size and power, knowledge that transformed Europeans’ understanding of the extent of the globe.

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10 Famous Explorers Whose Discoveries Connected the World

From Christopher Columbus to Marco Polo, these celebrated—and controversial—explorers made groundbreaking journeys across the globe.

Some of these explorers, like Christopher Columbus , are both celebrated and vilified today. Others, like Ferdinand Magellan and Francisco Pizarro , were met with violent and untimely deaths. And some, like Marco Polo , failed to received recognition in their lifetime, only to have their discoveries confirmed centuries later.

Learn more about some of the history’s most famous explorers and what they are remembered for today.

Time Period: Late 13 th century Destination: Asia

Marco Polo was a Venetian explorer known for the book The Travels of Marco Polo , which describes his voyage to and experiences in Asia. Polo traveled extensively with his family, journeying from Europe to Asia from 1271 to 1295, remaining in China for 17 of those years. As the years wore on, Polo rose through the ranks, serving as governor of a Chinese city. Later, Kublai Khan appointed him as an official of the Privy Council. At one point, he was the tax inspector in the city of Yanzhou.

Around 1292, he left China, acting as consort along the way to a Mongol princess who was being sent to Persia. In the centuries since his death, Polo has received the recognition that failed to come his way during his lifetime. So much of what he claimed to have seen has been verified by researchers, academics, and other explorers. Even if his accounts came from other travelers he met along the way, Polo’s story has inspired countless other adventurers to set off and see the world.

Christopher Columbus

Time Period: Turn of the 16 th century Destination: Caribbean and South America

Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer and navigator. Columbus first went to sea as a teenager, participating in several trading voyages in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. One such voyage, to the island of Khios, in modern-day Greece, brought him the closest he would ever come to Asia.

In 1492, he sailed across the Atlantic Ocean from Spain in the Santa Maria , with the Pinta and the Niña ships alongside, hoping to find a new route to India. Between that year and 1504, he made a total of four voyages to the Caribbean and South America and has been credited—and blamed —for opening up the Americas to European colonization. Columbus died in May 1506, probably from severe arthritis following an infection, still believing he had discovered a shorter route to Asia.

More about Christopher Columbus

Amerigo Vespucci

Time period: turn of the 16 th century destination: south america.

America was named after Amerigo Vespucci , a Florentine navigator and explorer who played a prominent role in exploring the New World.

On May 10, 1497, Vespucci embarked on his first voyage, departing from Cadiz with a fleet of Spanish ships. In May 1499, sailing under the Spanish flag, Vespucci embarked on his next expedition, as a navigator under the command of Alonzo de Ojeda. Crossing the equator, they traveled to the coast of what is now Guyana, where it’s believed that Vespucci left Ojeda and went on to explore the coast of Brazil. During this journey, Vespucci is said to have discovered the Amazon River and Cape St. Augustine.

On his third and most successful voyage, he discovered present-day Rio de Janeiro and Rio de la Plata. Believing he had discovered a new continent, he called South America the New World. In 1507, America was named after him . He died of malaria in Seville, Spain, in February 1512.

More about Amerigo Vespucci

Time Period: Late 15 th century Destination: Canada

John Cabot was a Venetian explorer and navigator known for his 1497 voyage to North America, where he made a British claim to land in Canada, mistaking it for Asia . The precise location of Cabot’s landing is subject to controversy. Some historians believe that Cabot landed at Cape Breton Island or mainland Nova Scotia. Others believe he might have landed at Newfoundland, Labrador, or even Maine.

In February 1498, Cabot was given permission to make a new voyage to North America. The May, he departed from Bristol, England, with five ships and a crew of 300 men. En route, one ship became disabled and sailed to Ireland, while the other four ships continued on. On the journey, Cabot disappeared, and his final days remain a mystery. It’s believed Cabot died sometime in 1499 or 1500, but his fate remains a mystery.

More about John Cabot

Ferdinand Magellan

Time Period: Early 16 th century Destination: Global circumnavigation

While in the service of Spain, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan led the first European voyage of discovery to circumnavigate the globe. As a boy, Magellan studied mapmaking and navigation. In 1505, when Magellan was in his mid-20s, he joined a Portuguese fleet that was sailing to East Africa. By 1509, he found himself at the Battle of Diu, in which the Portuguese destroyed Egyptian ships in the Arabian Sea. Two years later, he explored Malacca, located in present-day Malaysia, and participated in the conquest of Malacca’s port.

In 1519, with the support of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (also known as Spain’s King Charles I), Magellan set out to find a better route to the Spice Islands. In March 1521, Magellan’s fleet reached Homonhom Island on the edge of the Philippines with less than 150 of the 270 men who started the expedition. Magellan traded with the island’s king Rajah Humabon, and their bond quickly formed. The Spanish crew soon became involved in a war between Humabon and another rival leader, and Magellan was killed in battle in April 1521.

More about Ferdinand Magellan

Hernán Cortés

Time period: 16 th century destination: central america.

Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who explored Central America, overthrew Montezuma and his vast Aztec empire, and won Mexico for the crown of Spain. He first set sail to the New World at the age of 19. Cortés later joined an expedition to Cuba.

In 1518, he set off to explore Mexico. Cortés became allies with some of the Indigenous peoples he encountered there, but with others, he used deadly force to conquer Mexico . He fought Tlaxacan and Cholula warriors and then set his sights on taking over the Aztec empire. In their bloody battles for domination over the Aztecs, Cortés and his men are estimated to have killed as many as 100,000 Indigenous peoples. In his role as the Spanish king, Emperor Charles V appointed him the governor of New Spain in 1522.

More about Hernán Cortés

Sir Francis Drake

Time period: late 16 th century destination: global circumnavigation.

English admiral Sir Francis Drake was the second person to circumnavigated the globe and was the most renowned seaman of the Elizabethan era. In 1577, Drake was chosen as the leader of an expedition intended to pass around South America, through the Strait of Magellan, and explore the coast that lay beyond. Drake successfully completed the journey and was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I upon his triumphant return in 1580.

In 1588, Drake saw action in the English defeat of the Spanish Armada , though he died in 1596 from dysentery after undertaking an unsuccessful raiding mission.

More about Francis Drake

Sir Walter Raleigh

Time Period: Late 16 th century Destination: United States

Sir Walter Raleigh was an English explorer, soldier, and writer. At age 17, he fought with the French Huguenots and later studied at Oxford. He became a favorite of Queen Elizabeth I after serving in her army in Ireland. He was knighted in 1585 and, within two years, became captain of the Queen’s Guard.

An early supporter of colonizing North America, Raleigh sought to establish a colony, but the queen initially forbade him to leave her service. Between 1585 to 1588, he invested in a number of expeditions across the Atlantic, attempting to establish a colony near Roanoke, on the coast of what is now North Carolina, and name it “Virginia” in honor of the virgin queen, Elizabeth. Accused of treason by King James I, Raleigh was imprisoned and eventually put to death.

More about Walter Raleigh

Time Period: Late 18 th century Destination: New Zealand and Australia

James Cook was a naval captain, navigator, and explorer. After serving as an apprentice, Cook eventually joined the British Navy and, at age 29, was promoted to ship’s master. During the Seven Years War that began in 1756, he commanded a captured ship for the Royal Navy. Then, in 1768, he took command of the first scientific expedition to the Pacific.

In 1770, on his ship the HMB Endeavour , Cook charted New Zealand and the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. This area has since been credited as one of the world’s most dangerous areas to navigate . He later disproved the existence of Terra Australis, a fabled southern continent. Cook’s voyages helped guide generations of explorers and provided the first accurate map of the Pacific.

More about James Cook

Francisco Pizarro

Time period: early 16 th century destination: central and south america.

In 1513, Spanish explorer and conquistador Francisco Pizarro joined Vasco Núñez de Balboa in his march to the “South Sea,” across the Isthmus of Panama. During their journey, Balboa and Pizarro discovered what is now known as the Pacific Ocean, though Balboa allegedly spied it first and was therefore credited with the ocean’s first European discovery.

In 1528, Pizarro went back to Spain and managed to procure a commission from Emperor Charles V. Pizarro was to conquer the southern territory and establish a new Spanish province there. In 1532, accompanied by his brothers, Pizarro overthrew the Inca leader Atahualpa and conquered Peru. Three years later, he founded the new capital city of Lima. Over time, tensions increasingly built up between the conquistadors who had originally conquered Peru and those who arrived later to stake some claim in the new Spanish province. This conflict eventually led to Pizarro’s assassination in 1541.

More about Francisco Pizarro

European Explorers

Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo

Leif Eriksson

Vasco da Gama

Bartolomeu Dias

Giovanni da Verrazzano

Jacques Marquette

René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle

Voyages of Ferdinand Magellan

First voyage, king charles i finances the voyage, rio de janeiro, strait of magellan, philippines, death in battle, rounding the cape, voyage home.

The Magellan expedition, also known as the Magellan–Elcano expedition, was the first voyage around the world. It was a 16th century Spanish expedition initially led by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan to the Moluccas, which departed from Spain in 1519, and completed in 1522 by Spanish navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano, after crossing the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans, culminating in the first circumnavigation of the world.

The expedition accomplished its primary goal – to find a western route to the Moluccas (Spice Islands). The fleet left Spain on 20 September 1519, sailed across the Atlantic ocean and down the eastern coast of South America, eventually discovering the Strait of Magellan, allowing them to pass through to the Pacific Ocean (which Magellan named). The fleet completed the first Pacific crossing, stopping in the Philippines , and eventually reached the Moluccas after two years. A much-depleted crew led by Juan Sebastián Elcano finally returned to Spain on 6 September 1522, having sailed west across the great Indian Ocean, then around the Cape of Good Hope through waters controlled by the Portuguese and north along the Western African coast to eventually arrive in Spain.

The fleet initially consisted of five ships and about 270 men. The expedition faced numerous hardships including Portuguese sabotage attempts, mutinies, starvation, scurvy, storms, and hostile encounters with indigenous people. Only 30 men and one ship (the Victoria) completed the return trip to Spain. Magellan himself died in battle in the Philippines, and was succeeded as captain-general by a series of officers, with Elcano eventually leading the Victoria's return trip.

The expedition was funded mostly by King Charles I of Spain, with the hope that it would discover a profitable western route to the Moluccas, as the eastern route was controlled by Portugal under the Treaty of Tordesillas. Though the expedition did find a route, it was much longer and more arduous than expected, and was therefore not commercially useful. Nevertheless, the expedition is regarded as one of the greatest achievements in seamanship, and had a significant impact on the European understanding of the world.

In March 1505 at the age of 25, Magellan enlisted in the fleet of 22 ships sent to host Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India . Although his name does not appear in the chronicles, it is known that he remained there eight years, in Goa, Cochin and Quilon. He participated in several battles, including the battle of Cannanore in 1506, where he was wounded. In 1509 he fought in the battle of Diu.

After having his proposed expeditions to the Spice Islands repeatedly rejected by King Manuel of Portugal, Magellan turned to Charles I, the young King of Spain (and future Holy Roman Emperor). Under the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, Portugal controlled the eastern routes to Asia that went around Africa. Magellan instead proposed reaching the Spice Islands by a western route, a feat which had never been accomplished. Hoping that this would yield a commercially useful trade route for Spain , Charles approved the expedition, and provided most of the funding.

On 10 August 1519, the five ships under Magellan's command left Seville and descended the Guadalquivir River to Sanlúcar de Barrameda, at the mouth of the river. There they remained more than five weeks. The fleet left Spain on 20 September 1519, sailing west across the Atlantic toward South America. Magellan's fleet consisted of five ships, carrying supplies for two years of travel. The crew consisted of about 270 men. Most were Spanish, but around 40 were Portuguese.

On 13 December, the fleet reached Rio de Janeiro, Brazil . Though nominally Portuguese territory, they maintained no permanent settlement there at the time. Seeing no Portuguese ships in the harbour, Magellan knew it would be safe to stop.

The fleet spent 13 days in Rio, during which they repaired their ships, stocked up on water and food (such as yam, cassava, and pineapple), and interacted with the locals. The expedition had brought with them a great quantity of trinkets intended for trade, such as mirrors, combs, knives and bells. The locals readily exchanged food and local goods (such as parrot feathers) for such items. The crew also found they could purchase sexual favours from the local women. Historian Ian Cameron described the crew's time in Rio as "a saturnalia of feasting and lovemaking".

On 27 December, the fleet left Rio de Janeiro. Pigafetta wrote that the natives were disappointed to see them leave, and that some followed them in canoes trying to entice them to stay.

After three months of searching (including a false start in the estuary of Río de la Plata), weather conditions forced the fleet to stop their search to wait out the winter. They found a sheltered natural harbor at the port of Saint Julian, and remained there for five months. Shortly after landing at St. Julian, there was a mutiny attempt led by the Spanish captains Juan de Cartagena, Gaspar de Quesada and Luis de Mendoza. Magellan barely managed to quell the mutiny, despite at one point losing control of three of his five ships to the mutineers. Mendoza was killed during the conflict, and Magellan sentenced Quesada and Cartagena to being beheaded and marooned, respectively. Lower-level conspirators were made to do hard labor in chains over the winter, but later freed.

During the winter, one of the fleet's ships, the Santiago, was lost in a storm while surveying nearby waters, though no men were killed. Following the winter, the fleet resumed their search for a passage to the Pacific in October 1520. Three days later, they found a bay which eventually led them to a strait, now known as the Strait of Magellan, which allowed them passage through to the Pacific. While exploring the strait, one of the remaining four ships, the San Antonio, deserted the fleet, returning east to Spain. The fleet reached the Pacific by the end of November 1520. Based on the incomplete understanding of world geography at the time, Magellan expected a short journey to Asia, perhaps taking as little as three or four days. In fact, the Pacific crossing took three months and twenty days. The long journey exhausted their supply of food and water, and around 30 men died, mostly of scurvy. Magellan himself remained healthy, perhaps because of his personal supply of preserved quince.

On 6 March 1521, the exhausted fleet made landfall at the island of Guam and were met by native Chamorro people who came aboard the ships and took items such as rigging, knives, and a ship's boat. The Chamorro people may have thought they were participating in a trade exchange (as they had already given the fleet some supplies), but the crew interpreted their actions as theft. Magellan sent a raiding party ashore to retaliate, killing several Chamorro men, burning their houses, and recovering the 'stolen' goods

On 16 March, the fleet reached the Philippines , where they would remain for a month and a half. Magellan befriended local leaders on the island of Limasawa, and on 31 March, held the first Mass in the Philippines, planting a cross on the island's highest hill. Magellan set about converting the locals to Christianity . Most accepted the new religion readily, but the island of Mactan resisted.

On 27 April, Magellan and members of his crew attempted to subdue the Mactan natives by force, but in the ensuing battle, the Europeans were overpowered and Magellan was killed by Lapulapu, a native chieftain in Mactan.

Following his death, Magellan was initially succeeded by co-commanders Juan Serrano and Duarte Barbosa (with a series of other officers later leading). The fleet left the Philippines (following a bloody betrayal by former ally Rajah Humabon) and eventually made their way to the Moluccas in November 1521. Laden with spices, they attempted to set sail for Spain in December, but found that only one of their remaining two ships, the Victoria, was seaworthy.

The Victoria set sail via the Indian Ocean route home on 21 December 1521, commanded by Juan Sebastián Elcano. By 6 May 1522 the Victoria rounded the Cape of Good Hope, with only rice for rations.

Twenty crewmen died of starvation by 9 July 1522, when Elcano put into Portuguese Cape Verde for provisions. The crew was surprised to learn that the date was actually 10 July 1522, as they had recorded every day of the three-year journey without omission. They had no trouble making purchases at first, using the cover story that they were returning to Spain from the Americas. However, the Portuguese detained 13 crew members after discovering that Victoria was carrying spices from the East Indies. The Victoria managed to escape with its cargo of 26 tons of spices (cloves and cinnamon).

On 6 September 1522, Elcano and the remaining crew of Magellan's voyage arrived in Sanlúcar de Barrameda in Spain aboard Victoria, almost exactly three years after they departed. They then sailed upriver to Seville, and from there overland to Valladolid, where they appeared before the Emperor. When Victoria, the one surviving ship and the smallest carrack in the fleet, returned to the harbour of departure after completing the first circumnavigation of the Earth, only 18 men out of the original 270 men were on board. In addition to the returning Europeans, the Victoria had aboard three Moluccans who came aboard at Tidore.

Magellan has come to be renowned for his navigational skill and tenacity. The first circumnavigation has been called "the greatest sea voyage in the Age of Discovery", and even "the most important maritime voyage ever undertaken". Appreciation of Magellan's accomplishments may have been enhanced over time by the failure of subsequent expeditions which attempted to retrace his route, beginning with the Loaísa expedition in 1525 (which featured Juan Sebastián Elcano as second-in-command). The next expedition to successfully complete a circumnavigation, led by Francis Drake, would not occur until 1580, 58 years after the return of the Victoria.

Magellan named the Pacific Ocean (which was also often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century), and lends his name to the Strait of Magellan.

Even though Magellan did not survive the trip, he has received more recognition for the expedition than Elcano has, since Magellan was the one who started it, Portugal wanted to recognize a Portuguese explorer, and Spain feared Basque nationalism.

How Did the Caravel Change the World?

Technology of the age of exploration.

Holy Roman Emperor

Ferdinand Magellan

Portuguese Explorer

Juan Sebastián Elcano

Castilian Explorer

Juan de Cartagena

Spanish Explorer

Francisco de Almeida

Mactan Datu

• The First Voyage Round the World, by Magellan, full text, English translation by Lord Stanley of Alderley, London: Hakluyt, [1874] – six contemporary accounts of his voyage
• Guillemard, Francis Henry Hill (1890), The life of Ferdinand Magellan, and the first circumnavigation of the globe, 1480–1521, G. Philip, retrieved 8 April 2009
• Zweig, Stefan (2007), Conqueror of the Seas – The Story of Magellan, Read Books, ISBN 978-1-4067-6006-4

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1.2: Explorers and Oceanographers

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Prince Henry the Navigator (1394 - 1460)

Henry the Navigator lived from 1394 to 1460. Prince Henry of Portugal was interested in sailing and commerce, and studied navigation and mapmaking. He established a naval observatory for the teaching of navigation, astronomy, and cartography around 1450. From 1419 to his death, Prince Henry made many expeditions south along the west coast of Africa to secure trade routes and establish colonies.

Prince Henry of Portugal organized and financed many voyages that went south from Portugal and eventually rounded the African continent. His goals were to create maps of the West African coastline, establish trade routes, and spread Christianity. He encouraged voyages of expeditions and the scientific study of navigation. Furthermore, he ran an observatory and school of navigation. Prince Henry played a vital role in the development of more accurate maps and the engineering of a new ship that was more ideal for exploring rough seas.

Prince Henry the Navigator, a key figure in Portuguese exploration. ( Wikipedia )

Zheng He (1371 - 1433)

Zheng He [pronounced as JUNG HUH] lived from 1371 to 1433. He was born in Yunnan at the foothills of the Himalaya Mountains. As a child, his name was Ma He. He grew up a Hui, a Chinese Muslim. When he was only 10 years old, Chinese soldiers, under the orders of the Ming Dynasty, invaded Yunnan in effort to overtake one of the last Mongol holds. They killed his father and he was captured. Along with many other boys who were taken, he was castrated and forced to serve for a Chinese prince known as Zhu Di. In 1402, Zhu Di took the throne as Emperor Yongle. He made Ma He the chief of staff for all the servants and changed his name to Zheng He. The Yongle Emperor proved to be one of the most ambitious emperors of his time and chose Zheng He to be the commander in chief of a series of missions across the Indian Ocean in order to increase China's influence.

From 1405 to 1433, Zheng He led seven naval expeditions throughout the Chinese Seas and the Indian Ocean, and he reached locations from Taiwan, the Persian Gulf, and Africa. He saw the commission of 3,500 ships and commanded at least 62 ships and 27,800 men (more than half of London’s population at the time). Zheng He’s led nine-masted flagships that measured about 400 feet long (Christopher Columbus’s Santa Maria was only 85 feet long). These were some of the largest wooden ships ever built in this time period. These naval expeditions did not serve the purpose to colonize or conquer but rather served as “treasure hunts” that brought back items of great value as tribute to the Yongle Emperor. Zheng He brought back gold, jewelry, and other delicacies. He even brought Zebras, Rhinos, and Giraffes. In 1424, the Yongle emperor died and his successor suspended all naval expeditions abroad. Zheng He went on his seventh and final voyage from 1431 to 1433. He died at sea and was buried off the coast of India.

Zheng He and his naval voyages had a great impact on the status of China at the time. These voyages increased maritime and commercial influence of China throughout the Indian ocean up until the 19th century. Foreign goods, medicines, and geological knowledge flowed through China at an unprecedented rate even though these ships only served as treasure ships. Many historians argue that China could have become a great colonial power many years before the age of great exploration if the leadership had decided to use their technology for outreach rather than for isolation.

Here is a good map of the travels of Zheng He: https://cdn.kastatic.org/KA-share/BigHistory/KU8.1.8-4_Zheng_He-Map.pdf

A statue of Zheng He in Stadthuys, Melaka. ( Wikipedia )

Christopher Columbus (1451 - 1506)

Christopher Columbus lived from 1451 to 1506. He made four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean in an effort to find a new route to the East Indies by traveling west rather than east. Having inaccurate estimates of Earth’s magnitude, he underestimated the distances necessary for the voyage and believed he had found islands off the coast of Asia when, in reality, he had reached the “New World.”

Christopher Columbus believed sailing west would be a faster way to get to India and to all the spices and riches it held. When his idea was rejected by Portugal, Columbus went to Spain where the King and Queen agreed to sponsor him. Columbus was granted three ships (the Niña, Pinta, and Santa Maria) and funds to finance his voyage across the ocean. After two months of sailing, Columbus and his crew arrived in the present-day Bahamas. Due to his excellent navigation records, he was able to sail back to Spain with proof, in the form of gold and other materials, of his success. However, the rest of Columbus’ voyages were unsuccessful. Although he died bitter and believing he had found Asia, Columbus’ discovery opened up a whole new world for his successors to explore.

Ferdinand Magellan

Ferdinand Magellan lived from 1480 to 1521. He left Spain in September 1519 with 270 men and five vessels in search of a westward passage to the Spice Islands. The expedition eventually lost two ships even before finally discovering and passing through the Strait of Magellan and rounding the tip of South America in November 1520. Magellan crossed the Pacific Ocean and arrived in the Philippines in March 1521, where he was killed in a battle with the natives on April 27, 1521. Magellan’s skill as a navigator makes his voyage probably the most outstanding single contribution to the early charting of the oceans.

Magellan had the idea to sail west across the ocean to get to Asia. Contrary to his expectations, Magellan sailed past modern-day Argentina and found a route to the Pacific Ocean. He was the first person to sail across the Pacific Ocean. It took him six long months to arrive in Asia though he had been looking for a shorter route. Eventually, Magellan and his crew sailed into charted waters in East Asia. Unfortunately, Magellan was killed in battle in the Philippines. His crew continued without him and reached Spain a total of three years after they had first set out on their voyage. Though Magellan perished during the voyage, his belief that the Earth is round was proven to be true. This important discovery altered the way people thought about the world and had a significant impact on future voyages.

Brown, Cynthia Stokes. “Zheng He.” Khan Academy , Khan Academy, www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/big-history-project/expansion-interconnection/exploration-interconnection/a/zheng-he

CrashCourse. “Columbus, De Gama, and Zheng He! 15th Century Mariners. Crash Course: World History #21.” YouTube, YouTube, 14 June 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjEGncridoQ

Levathes, Louise. When China Ruled the Seas : The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne 1400-1433. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994. ebookcentral.proquest.com/li...?docID=4457744

Lo, Jung-pang. “Zheng He.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 21 June 2019, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zheng-He

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Globalization from Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Ferdinand Magellan until today

21 December 2021 by Eric Toussaint

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In this study, Éric Toussaint covers the period from the 15 th to the 21 st century, focusing on the dramatic effects of capitalist globalisation.

The beginning of Globalization goes back to the outcomes of the first voyage of Christopher Columbus that brought him, on October 1492, to the shore of an island in the Caribbean Sea.  [ 1 ] It was the starting point of a brutal and bloody intervention of European sea powers in the history of American peoples, a region of the world that had, up to then, remained insulated from regular relationships with Europe, Africa and Asia. The Spanish conquistadors and their Portuguese, British, French and Dutch counterparts  [ 2 ] together conquered the whole geographical area, commonly known as the Americas  [ 3 ] , by causing the death of the vast majority of the indigenous population in order to exploit the natural resources (in particular gold and silver)  [ 4 ] . Simultaneously, European powers started the conquest of Asia. Later on, they completed their domination in Australia and finally Africa.

• Second intercontinental voyage of Vasco de Gama (1502)
• Maritime Chinese expeditions during the 15 th century
• In 1500, standards of living were comparable
• Intra-Asian trade before the European powers burst onto the scene
• Great Britain joins the other European powers in the conquest of the world
• The British Conquest of the Indies
• External debt as a means of domination and subordination
• External debt and free trade
• Latin America’s external debt crises: 19 th -21 st century
• Capitalism has continued its offensive against collective commons
• During the 19 th century and the first half of the 20 th century, popular movements recreated (...)
• Social reproduction has also come to the forefront
• Public debt has been and still is systematically used as a means of grabbing (...)
• The coronavirus pandemic has widened the gap between the Global North and the Global (...)
• Thanks to the possession of patents and to governmental complicity, Big Pharma is garnering (...)
• COVAX is not a solution
• Returning to a historical overview

The first voyage of Christopher Columbus is the starting point of a brutal and bloody intervention of the European powers in the history of the peoples of the ’Americas’

In 1500, just at the beginning of the brutal intervention of the Spaniards and the Portuguese in Central and South America, this region had at least 18 million inhabitants (some authors put forward much larger figures of close to 100 million  [ 5 ] ). One century later, only around 8 million inhabitants were left (including European settlers and the first African slaves). In the case of most islands of the Caribbean Sea, the whole indigenous population had been wiped out. It is worth recalling that during a long period of time, Europeans, supported by the Vatican  [ 6 ] , did not consider indigenous people from the Americas as human beings  [ 7 ] . A convenient justification for exploitation and extermination.

In North America, the European colonization started during the 17 th century, mainly led by England and France, before undergoing a rapid expansion during the 18 th century, an era also marked by massive importation of African slaves. Indigenous populations were either wiped out or driven outside the settlement zones of European settlers. In 1700, the indigenous population constituted three-quarters of the population; in 1820, their proportion had dropped down to 3%.

Until the forced integration of the Americas in global commerce, the main axis of intercontinental trade exchanges involved China, India and Europe  [ 8 ] . Trade between Europe and China followed terrestrial and maritime routes (via the Black sea)  [ 9 ] . The main route linking Europe to India (whether from the state of Gujarat in North-West India or from Kerala and the Calicut or Cochin harbours in the South-West) passed through the Mediterranean Sea, Alexandria, Syria, the Arabian Peninsula and finally the Arabian Sea. India also played an active role in trade exchanges between China and Europe.

Until the 15 th century, technical progress achieved in Europe relied upon technology transfers from Asia and the Arab world.

At the end of the 15 th century and during the 16 th century, trade started to follow other routes. When the Genoese, Christopher Columbus, serving under the Spanish crown, opened the maritime route towards the “Americas”  [ 10 ] by sailing west through the Atlantic, the Portuguese sailor, Vasco da Gama, made for India, also through the Atlantic but heading south. He sailed along the Western coasts of Africa from North to South, veering East after crossing the Cape of Good Hope in the south of Africa  [ 11 ] .

From the early Middle Ages until the 15 th century, the various technological advances made in Europe were dependent on technology transfers from Asia and the Arab world

Ferdinand Magellan is known for having planned and led the 1519 Spanish expedition to the East Indies across the Pacific to open a maritime trade route in which he discovered the interoceanic passage bearing thereafter his name and achieved the first European navigation from the Atlantic to Asia. This expedition, where Magellan was killed in the Battle of Mactan (present-day Philippines) in 1521, resulted in the first circumnavigation of the Earth when one of the expedition’s two remaining ships of five eventually returned to Spain in 1522.

Violence, coercion and robbery were central to the methods employed by Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Ferdinand Magellan to serve the interests of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns. During the following centuries, European powers and their servants would systematically use terror, extermination and extortion, combined with the search for compliant local allies. Several peoples worldwide would witness the brutal deviation of their history’s course under the whips of the conquistadors, settlers and European capital. Other peoples would suffer from an even more terrible fate since they were wiped out or reduced to the situation of foreigners in their own countries. Still, others were uprooted by force from one continent to another to serve as slaves.

Many peoples around the world have seen the course of their history abruptly and tragically changed by the lashings of conquistadors, settlers and European capital

Admittedly, prior to the 15 th century of the Christian era, history had been marked on several occasions by conquests, dominations and barbarity without however touching the whole planet. What is striking of the last five centuries is that European powers started conquering the whole world and, within three centuries, interlinked (almost) all peoples of the world through brutal ways. During the same time, the capitalist logic finally succeeded in dominating all other modes of production (without necessarily eliminating them entirely). At the end of the 15 th century, capitalist commercialization of the world received the first boost, subsequently followed by others, namely the 19 th -century diffusion of the industrial revolution from Western Europe and the “late” colonization of Africa by the European powers. The first international economic crisis (in industry, finance and trade) exploded at the beginning of the 19 th century, leading to the first debt crises  [ 12 ] . The 20 th century has been the scene of two World Wars, with Europe as their epicentre, and unsuccessful attempts to implement socialism. In the seventies, the turn of global capitalism towards neo-liberalism, and the restoration of capitalism in the former Soviet block and China have provided a new boost to globalization.

  Second intercontinental voyage of Vasco de Gama (1502)

Lisbon - Cape of Good Hope - Eastern Africa - India (Kerala)

After the first voyage to India in 1497-1499, Vasco da Gama was again assigned by the Portuguese crown to return there with a fleet of twenty ships. He left Lisbon in February 1502. Fifteen ships would have to come back while five (under the command of da Gama’s uncle) would stay behind, both to protect Portuguese bases in India and to block ships leaving towards the Red Sea, thus shutting off trade between the two areas. Da Gama rounded the Cape in June, stopping in Sofala, East Africa, to buy gold  [ 13 ] . In Kilwa, he forced the local sovereign to make an annual payment of pearls and gold before making for India. Off Cannanore (70km north of Calicut - today Kozhikode), Da Gama waited for Arab ships returning from the Red Sea, to seize a ship, on the route from Mecca, with pilgrims and valuable cargo. Part of the cargo was seized and the ship set on fire, resulting in the death of most of its passengers and crew. The next stop was Cannanore where he swapped gifts (gold for precious stones) with the local sovereign without making business, estimating that the price of spices was too high. He sailed for Cochin (today Kochi), stopped his ships in front of Calicut and asked the sovereign to expel the whole Muslim trading Market activities trading Buying and selling of financial instruments such as shares, futures, derivatives, options, and warrants conducted in the hope of making a short-term profit. community (4000 households) who used the harbour as a base for commerce with the Red Sea.

Following the Samudri’s (local Hindu sovereign) refusal, Vasco da Gama ordered the bombardment of the town, following in the footsteps of another Portuguese sailor, Pedro Cabal, in 1500. He set for Cochin at the beginning of November where he bought spices in exchange for silver, copper and textiles stolen from the sunken ship. A permanent trading post was established in Cochin and five ships were left there to protect Portuguese interests.

Before leaving India for Portugal, Da Gama’s fleet was attacked by more than thirty ships financed by Calicut Muslim traders. A Portuguese bombardment led to their defeat. Consequently, a part of Calicut’s Muslim trading community decided to base their operations elsewhere. Those naval battles clearly demonstrate the violence and criminal nature of the action of Vasco da Gama and the Portuguese fleet.

Da Gama returned to Lisbon in October 1503 with thirteen of his ships and approximately 1700 tons of spices, that is, around the same amount imported from the Middle East at the end of the 15 th century by Venice. Portuguese profit Profit The positive gain yielded from a company’s activity. Net profit is profit after tax. Distributable profit is the part of the net profit which can be distributed to the shareholders. margins from this trade were much larger than those of Venetians. A major part of the spices was sold in Europe via Antwerp, the major harbour of the Spanish Netherlands, then the most important European harbour.

  Maritime Chinese expeditions during the 15 th century

Europeans were not the only ones travelling far away and discovering new maritime routes. But they were the most aggressive and the most conquering.

Several decades before Vasco da Gama, between 1405 and 1433, seven Chinese expeditions headed West and notably visited Indonesia, Malaysia, India, Sri Lanka, the Arabian peninsula (the Strait of Ormuz and the Red Sea), the Eastern Coast of Africa (notably Mogadishu and Malindi).

Europeans were not the only ones to discover new sea routes, but they were the most belligerent and conquering

Under Emperor Yongle, the Ming marine “ included approximately a total of 3800 ships, among which were 1350 patrol boats and 1350 battleships incorporated into defence or insular bases, the main fleet of 400 heavy battleships stationed near Nanking and 400 loading ships for cereal transportation. Moreover, there were more than 20 treasure-boats, ships equipped to undertake large scale action "  [ 14 ] . They were five times larger than any ship of Da Gama, 120 meters long and nearly 50 meters wide. The large boats possessed 15 watertight compartments so that a damaged ship would not sink and could be repaired at sea.

Their intentions were pacifist but their military force was sufficiently imposing to fend off attacks that only took place three times. The first expedition aimed towards India and its spices. Others were geared towards exploring the Eastern Coast of Africa, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.

China was undoubtedly ahead of Western Europe in many respects

The main goal of these voyages was to establish good relationships by offering gifts and escorting ambassadors or sovereigns that were coming to or leaving China. No attempt was ever made to establish bases for trade or military purposes. The Chinese were looking for new plants for medicinal needs and one of the missions comprised 180 members of the medical profession. In contrast, during the first voyage of Vasco da Gama to India, his crew included approximately 160 men, among whom were gunners, musicians and three Arab interpreters. After 1433, the Chinese abandoned their lengthy maritime expeditions and gave priority to internal development.

  In 1500, standards of living were comparable

When, at the end of the 15 th Century, Western European powers launched their conquests of the rest of the world, European standards of living and level of development were no higher than those of other large areas of the world. China was unquestionably ahead of Western Europe in many ways: in people’s living conditions, in the sciences, infrastructure  [ 15 ] and agricultural and manufacturing processes. India was more or less on a par with Europe, as far as living conditions and quality of manufactured goods were concerned (Indian textiles and iron were of better quality than European products)  [ 16 ] . The Inca civilization in the Andes in Southern America and the Aztecs in Mexico were also flourishing and very advanced.

Europeans were no better off than people in other major regions of the world before they set out to conquer them

We should be cautious when defining criteria for measuring development and avoid limiting ourselves to the calculation of GDP GDP Gross Domestic Product Gross Domestic Product is an aggregate measure of total production within a given territory equal to the sum of the gross values added. The measure is notoriously incomplete; for example it does not take into account any activity that does not enter into a commercial exchange. The GDP takes into account both the production of goods and the production of services. Economic growth is defined as the variation of the GDP from one period to another. per capita. Having said that, even if we take this measure and add life expectancy and quality of food available, the Europeans did not live any better than the inhabitants of other large areas of the world, prior to their conquering expeditions.

  Intra-Asian trade before the European powers burst onto the scene

In 1500 Asia’s population was five times that of Western Europe. The Indian population alone was twice that of Western Europe. Hence, it represented a very large market, with a network of Asian traders operating between East Africa and Western India, and between Eastern India and Indonesia. East of the Malacca Straits, trade was dominated by China.

Asian traders knew the seasonal wind patterns and navigation hazards of the Indian Ocean well. There were many experienced sailors in the area, and they had a wealth of scientific literature available on astronomy and navigation. Their navigation tools had little to envy those of the Portuguese.

From East Africa to Malacca (in the narrow straits separating Sumatra from Malaysia), Asian trade was conducted by communities of merchants who did their business without armed gunships or heavy government intervention.

Things changed radically with the methods used by the Portuguese, Dutch, English and French, serving state and merchant interests. The maritime expeditions launched by the European powers to various parts of Asia increased considerably, as shown in the table below (from Maddison, 2001). It shows clearly that Portugal was the indisputable European power in Asia in the 16 th Century. The following century it was replaced by the Dutch, who remained dominant throughout the 18 th Century, and the English were in second place.

  Great Britain joins the other European powers in the conquest of the world

“ In the 16 th Century, England’s main occupations outside Europe were piracy and reconnaissance trips to explore the possibility of setting up a colonial empire. The most daring act was the royal support given to Drake’s (1577-80) expedition which, with five ships and 116 crew, rounded the Strait of Magellan, captured and plundered the treasure-laden Spanish ships off the Chilean and Peruvian coasts, set up useful contacts with the spice islands of the Molucca Sea, Java, Cape of Good Hope and Guinea on the way home ”  [ 17 ] .

At the end of the 16 th Century, Great Britain scored the decisive victory which sealed its status as a naval power when it defeated the Spanish Armada off the British coast.

From that moment on, Britain plunged into the conquest of the New World and Asia. In the New World it set up sugar-producing colonies in the Caribbean and, from the 1620s on, was an active participant in the trading of slaves imported from Africa. Simultaneously, between 1607 and 1713 it set up fifteen colonies of settlement in North America, thirteen of which ended up declaring their independence and becoming, in 1776, the United States, while the other two stayed within the British circle and were to become part of Canada.

In Asia, the British crown adopted a different policy: rather than settler colonies, it set up a system of exploitation colonies, starting with India. To this end, the British state granted its protection to the East India Company (an association of merchants in competition with other similar groups in Great Britain) in 1600. In 1702 the State bestowed a trade monopoly on the East India Company and threw itself into the fight for the subcontinent, which ended with the British victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, giving them control of Bengal. For a little over two centuries, Great Britain applied an uncompromising protectionist economic policy, and once it had become the dominant economic power during the 19 th Century, it imposed an imperialist free-trade policy. For example, with the help of gunboats, it imposed ‘free trade’ on China, forcing the latter to buy Indian opium while allowing the British to buy Chinese tea for resale on the European market with the proceeds of the opium sales.

Elsewhere, Britain extended its conquests in Asia (Burma, Malaysia), in Australasia (Australia, New Zealand…), in North Africa (Egypt), and in the Near East.

As for sub-Saharan Africa, until the 19 th Century, its only major interest Interest An amount paid in remuneration of an investment or received by a lender. Interest is calculated on the amount of the capital invested or borrowed, the duration of the operation and the rate that has been set. was the slave trade. Later on, the conquest of Africa became an objective.

Goa: a Portuguese enclave in India

In India, as in other parts of Asia, the English had been preceded by the Portuguese, who conquered small parcels of Indian Territory. They set up trading posts and installed religious terrorism. As such, an Inquisition court was set up in Goa in 1560, which imposed its cruelty until 1812. In 1567, all Hindu ceremonies were banned. In just over two centuries, sixteen thousand sentences were pronounced by the Goa Inquisition and thousands of Indians were burnt at the stake.

  The British Conquest of the Indies

To take over India, the British systematically sought allies among the local ruling classes The British, in their conquest of India, expelled their other European rivals the Dutch and the French. The latter was determined to prevail, but they could not do so. Their defeat in the Seven Years War against the British was mainly due to insufficient support from the French state  [ 18 ] .

To take control of India, the British systematically sought out allies amongst the local rulers and ruling classes. They did not hesitate to use force, when deemed necessary, as in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the violent repression of the Sepoy Rebellion in 1859.

They bent the local power structures to their service and generally left the local lords in place, allowing them to continue to lead an ostentatious life although the rules of the game were dictated by others (they were powerless against the British). The division of society into castes was maintained and even reinforced, which still weighs heavily on today’s India. In effect, the division of society into classes and gender domination were reinforced by a division into castes, based on birth.

The division of Indian society into castes was maintained and reinforced by Britain

Through taxation and unfair terms of trade between India and Great Britain, the Indian people contributed to the enrichment of Britain both as a country and in terms of its rich classes (merchants, industrialists and politicians). But the British are not the only ones who got rich: bankers, merchants and Indian manufacturers also accumulated immense fortunes. Thanks to them, the East India Company (EIC) and the British state managed to exert, for such a long time, domination which the people profoundly rejected.

The example of the cotton industry

The quality of textiles and cotton produced in India was unrivalled anywhere in the world. The British tried to copy the Indian production techniques and produce cotton of comparable quality at home, but for a long time, the results were quite poor. Under pressure, particularly from the owners of British cotton mills, the British government prohibited the export of Indian cotton to any part of the British Empire. London further forbade the East India Company to trade Indian cotton outside the Empire, thus closing all possible outlets for Indian textiles. Only thanks to these measures were Britain able to make its own cotton industry really profitable.

Today, while the British and other industrialized powers systematically apply the Intellectual Property Rights Treaty (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights - TRIPs) within the World Trade Organization, to demand payments from developing countries such as India, less than three centuries ago they had no qualms about copying Indian production methods and design, specifically in the textiles field.  [ 19 ]

Furthermore, to increase their profits and become more competitive than the Indian cotton industry, the British owners of cotton companies decided to introduce new production techniques: steam-powered machinery and new looms and spinning machines. Through the use of force, the British fundamentally changed India’s development. Whereas up to the end of the 18 th Century, the Indian economy exported high quality manufactured goods and could satisfy most domestic demands, in the 19 th and 20 th Century it was invaded by European products, particularly from Britain. Great Britain prevented India from exporting its manufactured goods, forced it to export increasing quantities of opium to China in the 19 th Century (just as it coerced China to buy the opium) and flooded the Indian market with British manufactures. In short, it produced under-development in India.

The destruction and grabbing of collective commons

Since the dawn of capitalism the logic of collective commons has been systematically challenged by the capitalist class through commodification and private appropriation of wealth. Since the dawn of capitalism the logic of collective commons has been systematically challenged by the capitalist class through commodification and private appropriation of wealth. One of their earliest objectives, when factories started to appear in Europe just over several centuries ago, was to take away the common people’s resources and livelihoods by grabbing the lands they lived on and so force them to migrate to the cities and accept the miserable and miserably paid jobs in the factories. On farther continents under European domination, their goal had been to grab the land and resources of local populations and force them into hard labour under the whip of imperialist exploiters.

From the 16 th to the 19 th century the various countries that one after the other fell under the yoke of capitalism all went through vast periods of the destruction of collective commons, a process that has been well documented by such authors as Karl Marx (1818-1883) Volume 1 of Capital ,  [ 20 ] Rosa Luxemburg (1871-1919) in The Accumulation of Capital ,  [ 21 ] Karl Polanyi (1886-1964) The Great Transformation ,  [ 22 ] Silvia Federici (1942) Caliban and the Witch .  [ 23 ] A great film by Raoul Peck The Young Karl Marx  [ 24 ] visualizes examples of the destruction of collective commons with dramatic scenes of the brutal repression of poor people collecting wood for fuel in German Rhineland forests and Karl Marx’s stand in support of their centuries-old legal and traditional right to do so that was running contrary to capitalistic logic. Daniel Bensaïd has devoted a small book to this subject entitled The Dispossessed: Karl Marx’s Debates on Wood Theft and the Right of the Poor in which he shows the continuing process of destruction of the commons.  [ 25 ]

In Capital, Karl Marx describes certain forms of grabbing by the capitalist system in Europe: “ The spoliation of church properties, the fraudulent alienation of the State domains, the robbery of the common lands, the usurpation of feudal and clan property, and its transformation into the modern private property under circumstances of reckless terrorism, were just so many idyllic methods of primitive accumulation. They conquered the field for capitalistic agriculture, made the soil part and parcel of capital, and created for the town industries the necessary supply of a “free” and outlawed proletariat ”. (Capital, Volume I, eighth section. Chap. 27 https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch27.htm )

The plundering of communal land is one of the idyllic processes of primitive capitalist accumulation While capitalist production was being imposed on Europe it was also spreading all over the globe: “ The discovery of gold and silver in America, the extirpation, enslavement and entombment in mines of the aboriginal population, the beginning of the conquest and looting of the East Indies, the turning of Africa into a warren for the commercial hunting of black-skins, signalised the rosy dawn of the era of capitalist production. These idyllic proceedings are the chief momenta of primitive accumulation ”. (Capital, Volume I, part 8. Chap. 31 https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch31.htm )

  External debt as a means of domination and subordination

Throughout the 19 th century, domination through external debt was a significant part of the imperialist policy of the major capitalist powers and it continues to plague the 21 st century in new forms. As a fledgling Nation during 1820-1830, Greece capitulated to the dictates of creditor powers (especially Britain and France).  [ 26 ] Though Haiti was liberated from France during the French Revolution and proclaimed its independence in 1804, debt again enslaved it to France in 1825.  [ 27 ] France invaded indebted Tunisia in 1881 and turned it into a protectorate.  [ 28 ] Great Britain led Egypt to the same fate in 1882.  [ 29 ] From 1881, the Ottoman Empire’s direct submission to its creditors (Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy and others),  [ 30 ] stepped up its disintegration. In the 19 th century, creditors forced China to grant territorial concessions and to fully open up its market. The heavily indebted Tsarist Russia may also have become prey of creditor powers, had the Bolshevik revolution (1917-18) failed to repudiate the debt unilaterally.

Domination through external debt was a significant part of the imperialist policy of the major capitalist powers During the second half of the 19 th century different peripheral powers  [ 31 ] - i.e. the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, the Russian Empire, China and Japan - had the potential to become imperialist capitalist powers. Only the last succeeded.  [ 32 ] In fact, Japan had almost no recourse to external debt for its noteworthy economic development on its way to becoming an international power in the second half of the 19 th century. Japan carried out a significant autonomous capitalist development following the reforms of the Meiji period (introduced in 1868). It imported the most advanced western production techniques prevailing at that time, prevented foreign interests from making financial inroads into its territory, rejected external loans and eliminated interior obstacles to the movement of indigenous capital. At the end of the 19 th century, Japan transformed from a secular autocracy to a robust imperialist power. The absence of external debt was not the only reason why Japan became a major imperialist power through vigorous capitalist development and an aggressive foreign policy. Other factors equally mattered but they are too many to catalogue here. However, the lack of external debt evidently played a fundamental role.  [ 33 ]

On the contrary, while China surged ahead with its impressive development until the 1830s to become a leading economic power,  [ 34 ] its recourse to external debt allowed the European powers and the US to gradually marginalize and control it. Again, other factors were involved, such as wars launched by Britain and France to impose free trade in China and force the country to import opium. However, external debt and its damaging consequences still played a vital role. In fact, China had to grant land and port concessions to foreign powers so that it could repay its external commitments.

In the 19 th century, in order to repay foreign loans, China abandoned parts of its territory and ports to foreign powers

Rosa Luxemburg wrote that one of the methods used by the Western capitalist powers to dominate China was “ Heavy war contributions ” which “ necessitated a public debt, China taking up European loans, resulting in European control over her finances and occupation of her fortifications; the opening of free ports was enforced, railway concessions to European capitalists extorted .”  [ 35 ] Nearly a century after Rosa Luxemburg, Joseph Stiglitz took up the issue in his book Globalization and Its Discontents .

  External debt and free trade

During the first half of the 19 th century, all Latin American governments except Francia’s Paraguay adopted free trade policies under pressure from Britain.

Since the local ruling classes did not invest in processing or manufacturing activities for the domestic market, the implementation of free trade did not threaten their interests. Consequently, free import of mainly British manufactured goods hindered the development of these countries’ industrial fabric. The abandonment of protectionism destroyed a large part of the local factories and workshops, particularly in the textile sector.

In a way, we can say that the combined use of external debt and free trade was the driving force behind the development of underdevelopment in Latin America. This is of course related to the social structure of Latin American countries. The local ruling classes, including the comprador bourgeoisie, made these choices in their own interest.

The combined use of external debt and free trade was the driving force behind the development of underdevelopment in Latin America

At the end of the 18 th century, several Latin American regions, although still under colonial rule, accomplished a real artisanal and manufacturing development, mainly supplying local markets. Great Britain’s support for the Latin American people’s desire for independence stemmed from a desire for economic domination over the region. From the beginning Great Britain’s condition for recognizing independent states were clear: They had to allow free entry of English goods into their territory (the aim was to limit import duties to about 5%). Most new states agreed and the local producers, particularly artisans and small entrepreneurs, were put into great difficulty.  [ 36 ] British goods invaded the local markets.

The British authorities practised highly protectionist policies until 1846.  [ 37 ] This propelled the rise of Britain as the foremost industrial, financial, commercial, and military power during the 19 th century. Whereas from 1810–1820 they had entered into agreements with the independentist Latin American leaders to open the economies of the still-developing new states to British goods and investments,  [ 38 ] the British authorities were protective of their own industries and trade. Britain remained at the forefront by strongly protecting its market and its booming industries while destroying the industries (for example India’s textile industry) of its competitors. Only once British industry had achieved a prominent technological lead did Britain embrace free trade since it need no longer worry about any serious competition. Paul Bairoch writes that starting from the late 1840s, “ the most highly developed country had become the most liberal, which made it easy to equate economic success with a free trade system, whereas in fact, this causal link had been just the opposite .”  [ 39 ] Bairoch adds that “ before 1860 only a few small Continental countries, representing only 4% of Europe’s population, had adopted a truly liberal trade policy .”  [ 40 ] These were the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal, Switzerland, Sweden, and Belgium. Let us not forget that the United States remained protectionist throughout the 19 th century (and during most of the 20 th century).

George Canning, a prominent British politician,  [ 41 ] wrote in 1824: “ The deed is done, the nail is driven, Spanish America is free; and if we do not mismanage our affairs sadly, she is English .” Thirteen years later, Woodbine Parish, the British consul in La Plata, described a gaucho from the Argentine pampas in the following way: “ Take his whole equipment–examine everything about him–and what is there not of rawhide that is not British? If his wife has a gown, ten to one it is made in Manchester .”  [ 42 ]

Great Britain did not need to depend on military conquests to achieve this (although it did not hesitate to use force whenever it felt it necessary). It used two very effective economic weapons–granting international credits and imposing the abandonment of protectionism.

  Latin America’s external debt crises: 19 th -21 st century

Since they gained independence in the 1820s Latin American countries have experienced four debt crises.

The first occurred in 1826 (ensuing from the first major international capitalist crisis originating in London in December 1825) and continued until 1840-1850.

The second broke out in 1876 and ended in the early 20 th century.  [ 43 ]

The third began in 1931 following the 1929 US crisis and lasted until the late 1940s.

The fourth crisis burst in 1982 when the US Federal Reserve FED Federal Reserve Officially, Federal Reserve System, is the United States’ central bank created in 1913 by the ’Federal Reserve Act’, also called the ’Owen-Glass Act’, after a series of banking crises, particularly the ’Bank Panic’ of 1907. FED – decentralized central bank : http://www.federalreserve.gov/ took critical decisions on interest rates Interest rates When A lends money to B, B repays the amount lent by A (the capital) as well as a supplementary sum known as interest, so that A has an interest in agreeing to this financial operation. The interest is determined by the interest rate, which may be high or low. To take a very simple example: if A borrows 100 million dollars for 10 years at a fixed interest rate of 5%, the first year he will repay a tenth of the capital initially borrowed (10 million dollars) plus 5% of the capital owed, i.e. 5 million dollars, that is a total of 15 million dollars. In the second year, he will again repay 10% of the capital borrowed, but the 5% now only applies to the remaining 90 million dollars still due, i.e. 4.5 million dollars, or a total of 14.5 million dollars. And so on, until the tenth year when he will repay the last 10 million dollars, plus 5% of that remaining 10 million dollars, i.e. 0.5 million dollars, giving a total of 10.5 million dollars. Over 10 years, the total amount repaid will come to 127.5 million dollars. The repayment of the capital is not usually made in equal instalments. In the initial years, the repayment concerns mainly the interest, and the proportion of capital repaid increases over the years. In this case, if repayments are stopped, the capital still due is higher… The nominal interest rate is the rate at which the loan is contracted. The real interest rate is the nominal rate reduced by the rate of inflation. and plunging commodity prices. This crisis ended in 2003-2004 when foreign exchange revenues saw significant growth, thanks to increased commodity prices. Latin America also benefited from international interest rates, which were drastically lowered by the Fed, the ECB ECB European Central Bank The European Central Bank is a European institution based in Frankfurt, founded in 1998, to which the countries of the Eurozone have transferred their monetary powers. Its official role is to ensure price stability by combating inflation within that Zone. Its three decision-making organs (the Executive Board, the Governing Council and the General Council) are composed of governors of the central banks of the member states and/or recognized specialists. According to its statutes, it is politically ‘independent’ but it is directly influenced by the world of finance. https://www.ecb.europa.eu/ecb/html/index.en.html and the Bank of England after the Northern banking crisis erupted in 2008-2009.

A fifth crisis has been brewing since.

The origins and timing of Southern debt crises are linked to the global economy and Northern countries

When and how these crises break out is closely linked to the global economy and to the most industrialized economies in particular. Each debt crisis was preceded by a boom in the central economies when a part of the surplus capital was recycled into the peripheral economies.

Each phase spawning the crisis (during which the debt increased sharply) corresponded to the end of a long expansionary period in the most industrialized countries. That has not happened in the current crisis because this time only China has been through a long expansionary period. Usually, the crisis in indebted peripheral countries is caused by external factors, e.g. a recession or a financial crash striking the major industrialised economies, or a policy change in interest rates implemented by the central banks of the major powers of the time, etc.

Usually, the debt crisis in indebted peripheral countries is caused by external factors

The observations above contradict the dominant narrative propagated by the economic-historical schools of thought  [ 44 ] and transmitted by the mainstream media and governments. It claims that the crisis that erupted in London in December 1825 and spread to other capitalist powers, resulted from the over-indebtedness of Latin American States; the crisis of 1870 resulted from the indebtedness of Latin America, Egypt and the Ottoman Empire; that of 1890 which nearly caused the bankruptcy of one of the principal British banks, from Argentina’s over-indebtedness; that of the 2010s, from the over-indebtedness of Greece and more generally the “PIGS” (Portugal, Ireland, Greece, Spain).

  Capitalism has continued its offensive against collective commons

Capitalism has continued its offensive against collective commons for two reasons: 1. The commons have not yet entirely disappeared and therefore they limit the total domination of capital, which consequently seeks to appropriate them or reduce them to the bare minimum. 2. Important struggles have recreated commons during the 19 th and 20 th centuries. These commons are constantly being challenged.

  During the 19 th century and the first half of the 20 th century, popular movements recreated social commons by developing systems of collective support

During the 19 th century and the first half of the 20 th century, popular movements recreated social commons by developing systems of collective support: cooperatives, strike funds, solidarity funds. The victories of the Russian revolution also led to a short period of creation of common properties, until Stalinism degenerated into dictatorship and shamefully privileged a bureaucratic caste as described by Leon Trotsky in 1936 (Leon Trotsky The Revolution Betrayed .  [ 45 ] ).

In the 19 th and 20 th centuries, the workers’ movement recreated spaces of common goods Common goods In economics, common goods are characterized by being collectively owned, as opposed to either privately or publicly owned. In philosophy, the term denotes what is shared by the members of one community, whether a town or indeed all humanity, from a juridical, political or moral standpoint. by developing mutual aid systems

In many capitalist countries (in varying degrees of development) the governments realized that to maintain social peace and even to avoid a resurgence of revolutionary movements some scraps had to be thrown to the populations. This resulted in the development of welfare states.

After WW2, from the second half of the 1940s to the end of the 1970s the wave of decolonizations mainly in Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and the victorious revolutions in China (1949) and Cuba (1959) led to the redeployment of some collective commons notably through the nationalizations of strategic infrastructures (Suez canal in 1956 by the Nasser regime) and commodities Commodities The goods exchanged on the commodities market, traditionally raw materials such as metals and fuels, and cereals. such as copper by Salvador Allende in Chile in the early 1970s and petroleum resources (Algeria, Libya, Iraq, Iran…).

The human right to development the exercise of the inalienable right to full sovereignty over all their natural wealth and resources

This period of reaffirming collective commons is expressed in several United Nations documents from the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights to the 1986 Declaration on the Right of Development which in article 1 paragraph 2 affirms: “ The human right to development also implies the full realization of the right of peoples to self-determination, which includes,(…) the exercise of their inalienable right to full sovereignty over all their natural wealth and resources .”  [ 46 ]  This inalienable right of peoples to full sovereignty over their resources is constantly challenged by the IMF IMF International Monetary Fund Along with the World Bank, the IMF was founded on the day the Bretton Woods Agreements were signed. Its first mission was to support the new system of standard exchange rates. When the Bretton Wood fixed rates system came to an end in 1971, the main function of the IMF became that of being both policeman and fireman for global capital: it acts as policeman when it enforces its Structural Adjustment Policies and as fireman when it steps in to help out governments in risk of defaulting on debt repayments. As for the World Bank, a weighted voting system operates: depending on the amount paid as contribution by each member state. 85% of the votes is required to modify the IMF Charter (which means that the USA with 17,68% % of the votes has a de facto veto on any change). The institution is dominated by five countries: the United States (16,74%), Japan (6,23%), Germany (5,81%), France (4,29%) and the UK (4,29%). The other 183 member countries are divided into groups led by one country. The most important one (6,57% of the votes) is led by Belgium. The least important group of countries (1,55% of the votes) is led by Gabon and brings together African countries. http://imf.org , the World Bank World Bank WB The World Bank was founded as part of the new international monetary system set up at Bretton Woods in 1944. Its capital is provided by member states’ contributions and loans on the international money markets. It financed public and private projects in Third World and East European countries. It consists of several closely associated institutions, among which : 1. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, 189 members in 2017), which provides loans in productive sectors such as farming or energy ; 2. The International Development Association (IDA, 159 members in 1997), which provides less advanced countries with long-term loans (35-40 years) at very low interest (1%) ; 3. The International Finance Corporation (IFC), which provides both loan and equity finance for business ventures in developing countries. As Third World Debt gets worse, the World Bank (along with the IMF) tends to adopt a macro-economic perspective. For instance, it enforces adjustment policies that are intended to balance heavily indebted countries’ payments. The World Bank advises those countries that have to undergo the IMF’s therapy on such matters as how to reduce budget deficits, round up savings, enduce foreign investors to settle within their borders, or free prices and exchange rates. and the majority of governments in the interests of big private corporations.

  Social reproduction has also come to the forefront

What the authors add later on brings us closer to the situation highlighted by the current multidimensional crisis of capitalism and the coronavirus pandemic: “[Capitalism assumes] that there will always be sufficient energies to produce the labourers and sustain the social connections on which economic production, and society more generally, depend. In fact, social-reproductive capacities are not infinite, and they can be stretched to the breaking point. When a society simultaneously withdraws public support for social reproduction and conscripts its chief providers into long and gruelling hours of low-paid work, it depletes the very social capacities on which it relies .” (page 73) The neoliberal capitalist offensive is withdrawing public support for social reproduction and conscripts its chief providers into long and gruelling hours of low-paid work

What is denounced in this passage allows us to better understand the fragility of capitalist society in the face of epidemics, the inability of governments to do what is necessary in time to best defend the population, the pressure put on workers in the essential and vital sectors to come to the aid of the population while, at the same time, as a result of the decisions of these same governments, they are underpaid, devalued and in insufficient numbers. The same can be said about the causes of the failure of governments to address the consequences of climate change and the under-equipment and lack of civil protection personnel in the face of increasingly frequent ’natural disasters’.

  Public debt has been and still is systematically used as a means of grabbing commons

Since the 1970s public debt has systematically been used as a means of grabbing commons, as much in the North as in the South. The CADTM, along with other social movements, has not ceased to denounce this since the 1980s. We have devoted a dozen books  [ 48 ]  and several hundred articles to this issue. It is very satisfying to see that more and more writers are now highlighting the issue of debt as a weapon against public property.  [ 49 ]

Debt is one of financial capitalism’s weapons of choice

We cite once again Feminism for the 99%: " Far from empowering states to stabilize social reproduction through public provision, it authorizes finance capital to discipline states and publics in the immediate interests of private investors. Its weapon of choice is debt. Finance capital lives off of sovereign debt Sovereign debt Government debts or debts guaranteed by the government. , which it uses to outlaw even the mildest forms of social-democratic provision, coercing states to liberalize their economies, open their markets, and impose ’austerity’ on defenceless populations ." (page 77)

Financial capitalism lives off sovereign debt

All through the neoliberal offensive that has been the dominating ideological tendency since the 1980s, governments and different international institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF have insisted on the “duty” to repay external debt in order to generalize a tidal wave of privatizations of many countries’ strategic economic sectors, public services and natural resources, whether in developed countries or not. As a consequence, the previously existing tendency towards reinforcing collectivism has been reversed.

The list of assaults on public properties based on public debt is long. Some have accelerated the ecological crisis and the development of zoonoses: rapid deforestation, intensive animal farming and monocrops to gain foreign currencies in order to pay foreign debt, all of this in the framework of structural adjustment Structural Adjustment Economic policies imposed by the IMF in exchange of new loans or the rescheduling of old loans. Structural Adjustments policies were enforced in the early 1980 to qualify countries for new loans or for debt rescheduling by the IMF and the World Bank. The requested kind of adjustment aims at ensuring that the country can again service its external debt. Structural adjustment usually combines the following elements : devaluation of the national currency (in order to bring down the prices of exported goods and attract strong currencies), rise in interest rates (in order to attract international capital), reduction of public expenditure (’streamlining’ of public services staff, reduction of budgets devoted to education and the health sector, etc.), massive privatisations, reduction of public subsidies to some companies or products, freezing of salaries (to avoid inflation as a consequence of deflation). These SAPs have not only substantially contributed to higher and higher levels of indebtedness in the affected countries ; they have simultaneously led to higher prices (because of a high VAT rate and of the free market prices) and to a dramatic fall in the income of local populations (as a consequence of rising unemployment and of the dismantling of public services, among other factors). IMF : http://www.worldbank.org/ policies induced by the, already ill mentioned World Bank and IMF.

Some of the political policies imposed through debt repayment obligations have seriously hindered the capacity of states and populations to deal with coronavirus pandemic

Some of the political policies imposed through debt repayment obligations have seriously hindered the capacity of states and populations to deal with public health crises including the coronavirus pandemic: stagnation or reduction of public health budgets, imposing compliance to medical patents, renouncing the use of generic drugs, giving up producing medical equipment domestically, preferring private sector medical treatment and medicine distribution, suppressing free access to medical care in many countries, reducing the quality of working conditions in the medical sector and introducing the private sector into numerous essential public health services.

Public debt = alienation of the State

Already, over a century and a half ago Marx put it in a nutshell: “ Public debt: the alienation of the state – whether despotic, constitutional or republican – marked with its stamp the capitalistic era ”.  [ 50 ] Once we have become aware of the way repayment of public debt is instrumentalised to impose mortal neoliberal capitalist policies, we know we must fight for the cancellation of illegitimate debt. Marx also wrote that “ Public credit and private credit are the economic thermometer by which the intensity of a revolution can be measured .”  [ 51 ]

  The coronavirus pandemic has widened the gap between the Global North and the Global South

Confronted with the coronavirus pandemic that started end of 2019-beginning of 2020, the governments of long-standing imperialist powers (Western Europe, North America, Japan, Australia-New Zealand) and private pharmaceutical corporations have widened the gap between the Global North and the Global South.

Pfizer/BioNTech has delivered to Sweden alone nine times more doses than it has delivered to all the low-income countries put together

The pharmaceutical corporations find it far safer and more profitable to give priority to supplying the rich countries that not only can pay high prices for the vaccines but are willing to make advance payments covering the production costs to come. This is clearly illustrated in the analysis of the distribution figures of the vaccines. Moderna has allocated 84% of its production to the US and the EU; Pfizer/BioNTech has allocated 98% and for Johnson & Johnson the equivalent figure is 79%. Pfizer/BioNTech has delivered to Sweden alone nine times more doses than it has delivered to all the low-income countries put together.  [ 52 ]

Of the 5.76 billion doses injected only 0.3% have gone to the lowest income countries that have a total population of 700 million people

Mapping the vaccine doses clearly shows that part of the world is being left out. In October 2021, of the 5.76 billion doses injected, only 0.3% have gone to the lowest income countries that have a total population of 700 million people (see: https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations ). Only 2.7% of the populations of the 27 lowest income countries have received a vaccine jab against over 60% in North America and Western Europe.

The leaders of a handful of rich countries are opposed to lifting patents as requested by the Global South, particularly the European Union, Switzerland and Japan. As for the USA, President Joe Biden has said he is favourable to lifting the patents but has not taken any action towards requiring governments who are blocking the question in the WTO WTO World Trade Organisation The WTO, founded on 1 st January 1995, replaced the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). The main innovation is that the WTO enjoys the status of an international organization. Its role is to ensure that no member States adopt any kind of protectionism whatsoever, in order to accelerate the liberalization global trading and to facilitate the strategies of the multinationals. It has an international court (the Dispute Settlement Body) which judges any alleged violations of its founding text drawn up in Marrakesh. to do so.

  Thanks to the possession of patents and to governmental complicity, Big Pharma is garnering undue revenues

The prices asked by Big Pharma for Covid vaccines are exorbitant. Two examples: according to Public Citizen estimates, a Pfizer/BioNTech Covid vaccine dose costs about $1.20 to mass produce; a Moderna vaccine dose costs $2.85 to mass-produce.  [ 53 ] In some countries the Pfizer/BioNTech dose is sold at $23.50 and the Moderna dose is priced as high as $37.

The usual excuse for such prices is the costs of R&D and clinical trials. These arguments are not valid in the case of Covid vaccines as these costs have been financed by public authorities.

The decision by Northern governments to proceed to a third injection delights Big Pharma which sees more fabulous profits in gestation. If the patents on vaccines, tests and drugs are not lifted or actually abolished, the big private companies that dominate the pharmaceutical sector will reap colossal revenues for the next 20 years at the expense of the global population, state budgets and public health systems. The stakes are enormous because booster injections will be recommended and/or imposed. Imagine an annual injection for 20 years with a vaccine protected by a patent and therefore sold at a high price... Big Pharma shareholders may gleefully anticipate huge incomes.

In a well-documented report entitled The Inside Story of the Pfizer vaccine: ‘a once-in-an-epoch windfall , the Financial Times explains that thanks to its agreement with the German company BioNTech this US company took the lead over its competitors Moderna, Astra Zeneca, Johnson & Johnson in the production and selling of the vaccine. Like Moderna, it gave priority to the rich countries. By the end of 2021, it has covered 80% of the Covid vaccine sales in the EU and 74% in the US. It was very demanding towards the governments of countries in the Global South as it made changing their national laws a condition to supplying vaccines. “ Before deals could be agreed, Pfizer demanded that countries change national laws to protect vaccine makers from lawsuits (…). From Lebanon to the Philippines, national governments changed laws to guarantee their supply of vaccines .”  [ 54 ]

Pfizer had countries change their national laws to protect vaccine makers from lawsuits

The paper quotes Jarbas Barbosa, the assistant director of the Pan American Health Organization, who said that Pfizer’s conditions were “ abusive, during a time when due to the emergency [governments] have no space to say no .”

The Financial Times further explains that “ negotiations with South Africa were particularly tense. The government complained that Pfizer made what its former health minister Zweli Mkhize called ‘unreasonable demands,’ which it said delayed the delivery of vaccines .” The paper further reports that “ at one stage, [Pfizer] had asked the government to put up sovereign assets to cover the costs of any potential compensation, something it refused to do. The Treasury rejected the health department’s request to sign the deal with Pfizer, according to people familiar with the matter, arguing it was equivalent to ‘surrendering national sovereignty.’ But Pfizer did insist on indemnity against civil claims and required the government to provide finance for an indemnity fund. The South Africans said to me: ‘These guys are putting a gun to our head,’ says a senior official familiar with African vaccine procurement efforts. ‘People were screaming for a vaccine and they signed whatever was put in front of them .” 

South Africa’s Health Justice Initiative is about to file a lawsuit to enforce the publication of the contracts signed between Pfizer and the South African government.

“ We want to know what else they played hardball on ,” says Fatima Hassan, founder of South Africa’s Health Justice Initiative. “ A private company can’t have so much power. The contract should be open. They would tell the story of what Pfizer has managed to extract out of sovereign countries around the world .”

The outrageous attitude of governments in the most industrialized capitalist countries who deliberately deepen the gap with people in low-income countries finds a telling illustration in the third jab. Up to November 2021, those governments had had a third vaccine jab administered to 120 million inhabitants in rich countries while the total figure of vaccines administered in low-income countries only amounts to 60 million.  [ 55 ] This is public health apartheid.

Moreover, Amnesty International is right to denounce AstraZeneca, BioNTech, Johnson & Johnson, Moderna, Novavax and Pfizer for those “ six companies at the helm of the global Covid-19 vaccine roll-out are fuelling an unprecedented human rights crisis because of their refusal to waive intellectual property rights and share Share A unit of ownership interest in a corporation or financial asset, representing one part of the total capital stock. Its owner (a shareholder) is entitled to receive an equal distribution of any profits distributed (a dividend) and to attend shareholder meetings. vaccine technology, with most of the companies failing to prioritise vaccine deliveries to poorer countries .”  [ 56 ]

  COVAX is not a solution

Governments in countries of the South who wish to give their population the possibility of getting vaccinated will have to contract debts since COVAX-type initiatives are blatantly wanting and actually reinforce the hold of the private sector. COVAX is run jointly by three bodies: 1. The GAVI Alliance, which is a private structure that brings together companies and States, 2. The Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), which is another private structure that also includes capitalist companies and States, and 3. The WHO, which is a UN specialized agency.

Among the companies that finance and influence GAVI we find the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, Blackberry, Coca Cola, Google, the International Federation of Pharmaceutical Wholesalers, the Spanish bank Caixa, the Swiss bank UBS (the biggest asset Asset Something belonging to an individual or a business that has value or the power to earn money (FT). The opposite of assets are liabilities, that is the part of the balance sheet reflecting a company’s resources (the capital contributed by the partners, provisions for contingencies and charges, as well as the outstanding debts). management bank in the world), financial companies such as Mastercard and Visa, the aerospace manufacturer Pratt & Whitney, the American multinational consumer goods corporation Procter & Gamble, the British multinational consumer goods company Unilever, the oil company Shell International, the Swedish musical streaming company Spotify, the Chinese company TikTok and the car manufacturer Toyota.  [ 57 ]

Among the companies that finance and influence COVAX we find the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, Blackberry, Coca Cola, Google, UBS (the largest private Swiss private bank and the world’s largest wealth and asset management bank), the financial companies Mastercard and Visa, and Shell oil.

The entity which co-directs COVAX is the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), which was founded in 2017 at Davos on the occasion of a meeting of the World Economic Forum. Among the private companies who finance and strongly influence the CEPI we find, once again, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which has invested $ 460 million.

The membership of the COVAX initiative reveals much about the unwillingness of the various WHO member States to take responsibility for the struggle against the pandemic, in particular as regards public health. Such an attitude is typical of the damage done by the neoliberal groundswell that has swept the planet since the 1980s. The Secretariat General of the United Nations and the leadership of the specialized agencies within the UN system (for example the WHO in the area of health and the FAO for agriculture and food) have been moving in the wrong direction for the past thirty to forty years by relying more and more on private initiatives directed by a limited number of big global companies. Heads of State and of government have moved in the same direction. In fact, it can even be said that they made the first move. In so acting, they have allowed major private companies to be associated in decisions and derive advantages from the choices that are made.  [ 58 ]

Remember that over 20 years ago researchers and social movements specialized in care proposed that the public authorities should invest sufficient amounts to create effective remedies and vaccines against the “new generation” viruses stemming from the increase in zoonoses. The overwhelming majority of states have chosen to rely on the private sector and have given them access to the results of research conducted by public entities when they should have invested directly in the production of vaccines and treatments within the framework of a public health service.

As we have seen, the COVAX initiative is not the solution that is needed.

COVAX had promised to supply, by the end of 2021, 2 billion doses to the countries of the South who request them and who are associated with the initiative. In reality, figures show that at the beginning of September 2021 only 243 million doses had been shipped.  [ 59 ] As a result, the goal of 2 billion doses has been pushed back to the first semester of 2022.

All the major powers of the North have fallen short of the promises they made.

For example, on 21 October, the European Union along with Iceland and Norway had only delivered 52 million doses (10%) out of the 500 million they had promised.  [ 60 ]

According to an official assessment in December 2021, COVAX has so far only delivered about 600 million doses in 144 countries or territories, a long cry from the initial objective of two billion in 2021. To date, 9 doses have been administered for 100 inhabitants in low-income countries (as defined by the World Bank). In comparison, the world average is 104 per 100 people. This figure rises to 149 for high-income countries. Africa is the continent with the lowest rate of vaccination (18 doses for 100 inhabitants).  [ 61 ]

C-TAP (Covid-19 Technology Access Pool) is another disappointing WHO initiative. C-TAP includes the same protagonists as COVAX. It was created to pool intellectual property, data and fabrication processes by encouraging pharmaceutical companies who hold patents to cede to other companies the right to produce the vaccine, medicines or treatments by facilitating technology transfer.

Yet so far not a single vaccine producer has shared patents or know-how via C-TAP.  [ 62 ]

So far not a single vaccine producer has shared patents or know-how via C-TAP

Faced with the failure of COVAX and C-TAP, the signatories of the Manifesto ’End the system of private patents! launched by the CADTM in May 2021 are right in saying that:

“ Initiatives such as COVAX or C-TAP have failed miserably, not only because of their inadequacy but above all because they reflect the failure of the current system of global governance in which rich countries and multinationals, often in the form of foundations, seek to reshape the world order to their liking. Philanthropy and burgeoning public-private initiatives are not the answer. They are even less so in the face of today’s global challenges in a world dominated by States and industries driven solely by market forces and seeking maximum profits .”  [ 63 ]

  Returning to a historical overview

According to the Global Inequality Report 2022, published in early December 2021 and coordinated by Lucas Chancel, Thomas Piketty, Emmanuel Saez and Gabriel Zucman, the share of income currently captured by the poorest half of the world’s population is about half of what it was in 1820, before the great divergence between the Western countries and their colonies The share of personal income of the poorest 50% of adults in the world, about 3 billion people, is half of what it was in 1820! 

Beyond the North-South divide: class exploitation in all countries

This overview of the global situation is fundamental. It must be complemented by the huge inequalities in income and wealth accumulation within nations. Capitalism has spread on a global scale. In this system, the capitalist class, which accounts for a tiny minority of the population, gets richer and richer thanks to the wealth produced by the labour of the majority of the population, but also thanks to the exploitation of nature, without any concern for its physical limits. Without any leverage Leverage This is the ratio between funds borrowed for investment and the personal funds or equity that backs them up. A company may have borrowed much more than its capitalized value, in which case it is said to be ’highly leveraged’. The more highly a company is leveraged, the higher the risk associated with lending to the company; but higher also are the possible profits that it may realise as compared with its own value. on the means of production, most men and women are forced to sell their labour force to capitalists (who own the means of production), who try to pay the workforce as little as possible, thus preventing a majority of the population from escaping the social conditions in which they find themselves. Conversely, wealth accumulated by capitalists makes it possible for them to invest in various sectors so as to diversify their sources of profit as they exploit both humans and nature.

In order to keep profits at their highest level and to make sure that this mode of production endures, the capitalist class tries not only to pay as low wages as possible but also to prevent redistribution of wealth by paying as little tax as possible and by under-valuing social policies such as public services (whether housing, transport, health care or education). Capitalists also try to prevent workers from organizing, notably when they stand up against labour rights: the right to form trade unions, right to go on strike, right to collective bargaining, etc. Conversely, workers must organize if they want to acquire social rights and fight those inequalities. So there is a class struggle at an international level, the intensity of which depends on the level of collective organization of workers in a given place and at a given time, in the face of blatant injustices.

Economic inequalities between various groups can be measured through the wealthy people can claim and through people’s income (income from labour - wages, pensions, various social benefits - and income from capital such as corporate profits, dividends received by shareholders, etc.).

The poorest among the world population own literally less than nothing: they are indebted and owe money to their creditors – generally banks – namely to the richest portion of the population. In the United States, about 12% of the population, over 38 million inhabitants, are indebted beyond what they can ever hope to repay.  [ 64 ] Their debts (mostly student loans and mortgages) are so high that the cumulated assets of the poorer 50% are negative (-0.1%).  [ 65 ]

  Conclusion

Since the beginning of the violent conquest of entire continents by European powers until today, we have witnessed a sequence of plundering, destruction of common goods, the genocide of populations, exploitation of labour and nature... Gradually the capitalist system has become widespread on a global scale. This system subjects human beings and the whole of nature to intensive exploitation in order to accumulate maximum short-term profits and to guarantee the enrichment of the capitalist class, which represents no more than 1% of the world’s population. According to the World Wealth Report produced annually by the Credit Suisse bank, only 1% of the world’s adults own 45% of all personal wealth while nearly 3 billion people own nothing  [ 66 ] .

The capitalist system has produced a multi-dimensional global crisis that brings forth life on Earth to the brink of extinction.

It is high time to act for a complete break with the capitalist mode of production and property. We need to get out of the Capitalocene.

Bibliography

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[ 1 ]  This article has several origins. This version was presented on 28 October 2021 at an online conference organised by the University of the Philippines (UP) Cebu, as part of a seminar entitled Decolonial Perspectives: Reclaiming our rights as People from the Global South . It is a greatly expanded version of the author’s lecture given in Kerala, India, on 24 January 2008 under the title Impacts of Globalisation on Poor Peasants . The parts that have been added were written in 2017 and 2021.

[ 2 ]  To this must be added the Danes, who made a few conquests in the Caribbean Sea, not forgetting Greenland in the North (which had been ’discovered’ several centuries earlier). For the record, the Norwegians had reached Greenland and “Canada” well before the 15 th century. See in particular Leif Ericsson’s voyage in the early 11 th century to the ’Americas’ (where he moved from Labrador to the northern tip of Newfoundland), where a brief, long-forgotten settlement was established at l’Anse aux Meadows.

[ 3 ]  The name America comes from that of Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian sailor at the service of the Spanish crown. Indigenous peoples from the Andes (Quechuas, Aymaras, etc..) call their continent Abya-Yala

[ 4 ]  Among natural resources, one must include the new biological resources brought back by the Europeans to their countries, then diffused in the remaining of their conquests and further: maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, capsicum, tomatoes, pineapple, cocoa and tobacco.

[ 5 ]  Figures concerning the population of the Americas before the European conquest have been differently estimated. Borah estimates that the population of the Americas reached 100 million in 1500, while Biraben and Clark, in separate studies, provide estimates of nearly 40 million. Braudel evaluates the population of Americas between 60 and 80 million in 1500. Maddison adopts a much lower estimate, assuming that the population of Latin America reached 17.5 million in 1500 and reduced by more than half, a century after the conquest. In the case of Mexico, he estimates that the population went from 4.5 million in 1500 down to 1.5 million one century later (i.e. a depopulation of two-thirds of inhabitants). In this article, we adopt the conservative hypothesis as a precaution. Even within this hypothesis, the invasion and conquest of the Americas by Europeans can clearly be counted as a crime against humanity and genocide. The European powers that conquered the Americas exterminated entire peoples and the dead can be counted by the millions, most probably by tens of millions.

[ 6 ]  The Spanish and Portuguese crowns who ruled South America, Central America and a fraction of the Caribbean during three centuries used, as Catholic powers, the support of the Pope to perpetrate their crimes. One must add that, at the end of the 15 th century, the Spanish crowns expelled Muslims and Jews (who did not convert to Christianity) during and following the Reconquista (that ended on January 2 1492). Jews who did not renounce Judaism, emigrated and mainly took refuge in Muslim countries within the Ottoman Empire, which showed greater tolerance towards other religions.

[ 7 ]  From that point of view, the message of Pope Benedict XVI during his trip to Latin America in 2007 is very offensive against the memory of the peoples who were victims from the European domination. Indeed, far from acknowledging the crimes committed by the Catholic Church against indigenous populations of the Americas, Benedict XVI claimed that they were waiting for the message of Christ, brought by the Europeans since the 15 th century. Benedict XVI should answer for his words in front of the courts of justice.

[ 8 ]  From Asia, Europeans brought back the production of silk textiles, cotton, the blown glass technique, cultivation of rice and sugar cane.

[ 9 ]  Namely the famous Silk Road between Europe and China followed by the Venetian Marco Polo at the end of the 13 th century.

[ 10 ]  Officially, Christopher Columbus tried to rejoin Asia taking the Western route but we know he hoped to find new lands unknown of Europeans.

[ 11 ]  Starting with the 16 th century, the use of the Atlantic Ocean for travelling from Europe to Asia and the Americas marginalized the Mediterranean Sea during four centuries until the boring of the Suez Canal. While the main European harbours were in the Mediterranean until the end of the 15 century (Venice and Genoa in particular), the European harbours open to the Atlantic gradually took over (Antwerp, London, Amsterdam).

[ 12 ]  See Eric Toussaint, Your Money or Your Life. The Tiranny of Global Finance . Haymarket Books, Chicago, 2005, chapter 7. The first international debt crisis occurred at the end of the first quarter of the 19 th century, simultaneously hitting Europe and the Americas (it is related to the first global crisis of overproduction of commodities). The second global debt crisis exploded at the end of the last quarter of the 19 th century and its repercussions affected all continents.

[ 13 ]  In coastal towns of East Africa, traders (Arabs, Indians of Gujarat and Malabar –Kerala- and Persians) were heavily involved in business, importing silk and cotton fabrics, spices and porcelain from China and exporting cotton, wood and gold. One could meet professional sailors, who were experts in the monsoon conditions of the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean.

[ 14 ]  Needham, 1971, p. 484

[ 15 ]  In the 15 th Century, Peking was connected to the areas which produced its food supplies by the Grand Canal which was 2300 km long and was easily navigated by barges thanks to an ingenious lock system.

[ 16 ]  There have been many debates about European gross domestic product (GDP) per head compared to the rest of the world. Estimates vary enormously according to the source used. Different authors, such as Paul Bairoch, Fernand Braudel and Kenneth Pomeranz, reckon that, in 1500, European GDP per capita was no higher than that of China and India. Maddison, who strongly opposes this view (for underestimating the level of development in Western Europe), reckons that India’s per capita GDP in 1500 was $550 (1990 equivalent) and that of Western Europe $750. Whatever the disagreements between these authors, it is clear that in 1500, before the European powers set out to conquer the rest of the world, they had a per capita GDP that was at most (i.e. according to Maddison’s deductions) between 1.5 and 2 times that of India, whereas 500 years later, the difference was tenfold. It is quite reasonable to conclude that the use of violence and extortion by the European powers (later joined by the United States, Canada, Australia and other countries with significant European immigration) was largely the basis of their current economic superiority. The same reasoning can be applied to Japan, but in a different timeframe because Japan, with a GDP per capita lower than China’s between 1500 and 1800, only became an aggressive, conquering capitalist power at the end of the 19 th Century. >From that time on, the growth of GDP was staggering: it increased thirty-fold between 1870 and 2000 (if we are to believe Maddison). This is the period which really made the difference between Japan and China.

[ 17 ]  See Maddison, 2001 p.110

[ 18 ]  See Gunder Frank, 1977 p. 237-238

[ 19 ]  The Dutch did the same with Chinese porcelain production techniques, which they copied and since then present as ceramics, faience and blue and white Delft pottery.

[ 20 ]  Karl Marx. 1867. Capital, vol I, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/

[ 21 ]  Rosa Luxemburg. 1913. https://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/index.htm

[ 22 ]  Polanyi, K. 1944. The Great Transformation , Beacon Press, Boston

[ 23 ]  Silvia Federici (2004), Caliban and the Witch, Autonomedia , New York, 2004.

[ 24 ]  The Young Karl Marx , French-German-Belgian biographical film by Raoul Peck, released in 2017.

[ 25 ]  Daniel Bensaïd, The Dispossessed, Karl Marx’s Debates on Wood Theft and the Right of the Poor , University of Minnesota Press, 2021, 160 pages

[ 26 ]  See : http://cadtm.org/Newly-Independent-Greece-had-an and http://cadtm.org/Greece-Continued-debt-slavery-from

[ 27 ]  See: Sophie Perchellet, Haïti. Entre colonisation, dette et domination , CADTM-PAPDA, 2010 http://cadtm.org/Haiti-Entre-colonisation-dette-et . Ordinance of the French Emperor, 1825, Article 2. “ The current inhabitants of the French part of Saint Domingue will pay an amount of 150 million francs to the Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations (Deposits and Consignments Fund ) of France in five equal annual instalments, the first of which will be due on December 1, 1825. This is intended to compensate the former colonial rulers who demand to be compensated." This amount was reduced to 90 million francs a few years later”.

[ 28 ]  See : http://cadtm.org/Debt-how-France-appropriated

[ 29 ]  See : http://cadtm.org/Debt-as-an-instrument-of-the

[ 30 ]  See : http://cadtm.org/L-Empire-Ottoman-face-a-une-troika ( in French )

[ 31 ]  Periphery countries, compared to the major European capitalist powers (Great Britain, France, Germany, Netherlands, Italy, Belgium) and the US.

[ 32 ]  Jacques Adda is one of the authors to have drawn attention to this issue. See: Jacques Adda. 1996. La Mondialisation de l’économie , tome 1, p.57-58 ( in French )

[ 33 ]  To learn more about the factors besides the rejection of external debt, read Perry Anderson  Lineages of the Absolutist State  (first published by NLB, 1974. Verso Edition 1979), on Japan’s transition from feudalism to capitalism.

[ 34 ]  Kenneth Pomeranz, who has been keen on highlighting the factors thwarting China’s race to become one of the major capitalist powers, does not give importance to external debt. In fact, his study focuses on the pre-1830 to 1840 era. However, his analysis is very rich and inspiring. See: Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence , Princeton University Press, 2000, 382 pages.

[ 35 ]  Rosa Luxemburg. 1969. L’accumulation du capital , Maspero, Paris, Vol. II, p. 60 ( in French ) ( In English : The Accumulation of Capital , Section 3, Chapter 28) https://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1913/accumulation-capital/ch28.htm

[ 36 ]  In his invaluable book Open Veins of Latin America: Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent , (trans. Cedric Belfrage, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973), Eduardo Galeano has portrayed this destruction with realism and compelling imagery. To date, this book remains the best and most accessible presentation of the various forms of domination and dispossession suffered by the Latin American peoples. The work is well documented and points out the responsibility of the dominant classes, both on the Old Continent and in the New World.

[ 37 ]  See Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).

[ 38 ]  See Luis Britto García, El pensamiento del Libertador: Economía y Sociedad . (Caracas: BCV, 2010).

[ 39 ]  Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History , 21

[ 40 ]  Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History , 22

[ 41 ]  George Canning, Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, became Prime Minister in 1827.

[ 42 ]  Woodbine Parish, Buenos Ayres and the Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (London: John Murray, 1839), 338. Quoted by Eduardo Galeano in Open Veins of Latin America , 176.

[ 43 ]  Venezuela’s refusal to repay its debt ultimately resulted in a major face-off with the imperialist powers of North America, Germany, Britain and France. In 1902, the latter sent a united military fleet to block the port of Caracas and to persuade Venezuela, through gunboat diplomacy, to resume debt repayment. Venezuela could not wrap up its payments before 1943.

[ 44 ]  See the 19 th -century writings of Sismondi and Tugan Baranovsky in particular, as well as the headlines of the print media and the speeches by the European governments of that period.

[ 45 ]  Leon Trotsky, 1936, The Revolution Betrayed: What is the Soviet Union and Where is It Going? , New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1937.

[ 46 ]  UN, 41/128. Declaration on the Right to Development, Adopted by the General Assembly 4 December 1986, http://un-documents.net/a41r128.htm

[ 47 ]  Cinzia Arruzza, Tithi Bhattacharya and Nancy Fraser, Feminism for the 99% a manifesto , available here: https://outraspalavras.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Feminism-for-the-99.pdf

[ 48 ]  See Eric Toussaint, Your Money or Your Life. The Tyranny of the Global Finance , Haymarket Books, Chicago, 2005; Debt, the IMF, and the World Bank, Sixty Questions, Sixty Answers , Monthly Review Press, New York, 2010; The World Bank – A Critical Primer, Between the lines , Toronto/Pluto Press, London/David Philips Publisher, Cape Town/CADTM, Liège, 2008.

Among the precursory works on debt as an instrument for the imposition of neoliberal policies, books by two women should be highlighted: Susan George on the one hand and Cheryl Payer on the other. George, Susan, 1988. A Fate Worse than Debt Penguin, and 1992, The Debt Boomerang: How Third World Debt Harms Us All Pluto Press. Cheryl Payer, 1974, The Debt Trap: The International Monetary Fund and the Third World , Monthly Review Press, New York and London, and 1991, Lent and Lost. Foreign Credit and Third World Development , Zed Books, London, 154 pp.

[ 49 ]  See for instance Verónica Gago and Luci Cavallero, “ Debt is a war against women’s autonomy ”, published on 20 May 2021.

[ 50 ]  Karl Marx. 1867. Capital , vol I, Part VIII: Primitive Accumulation , Chapter XXXI: Genesis of the Industrial Capitalist

[ 51 ]  Karl Marx, The Class Struggles in France, 1848 to 1850 , Selected Works , Volume 1, Progress Publishers, Moscow 1969

[ 52 ]  Amnesty International report « A DOUBLE DOSE OF INEQUALITY, PHARMA COMPANIES AND THE Covid-19 VACCINES CRISIS », published 22 September 2021, https://www.amnesty.be/IMG/pdf/20210922_rapport_vaccins.pdf https://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/covid-19-big-pharma-fuelling-unprecedented-human-rights-crisis-new-report .

[ 53 ]  Public Citizen, “How to Make Enough Vaccine for the World in One Year”, published 26 May 2021, www.citizen.org/article/how-to-make-enough-vaccine-for-the-world-in-one-year/

[ 54 ]  Financial Times, The inside story of the Pfizer vaccine: ‘a once-in-an-epoch windfall’, 1 December 2021. https://www.ft.com/content/0cea5e3f-d4c4-4ee2-961a-3aa150f388ec .

[ 55 ]  Figures provided by the Financial Times in the article mentioned.

[ 56 ]  Amnesty International, “Covid-19: Big Pharma fuelling unprecedented human rights crisis”, published 22 September 2021, https://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/covid-19-big-pharma-fuelling-unprecedented-human-rights-crisis-new-report .

[ 57 ]  GAVI, Donor profiles, https://www.gavi.org/investing-gavi/funding/donor-profiles

[ 58 ]  The major agribusiness corporations had invited themselves to the UN Food Systems Summit 2021 whereas, in fact, they are one of the causes of, and not a solution to, the worldwide food and environmental crises. A number of movements have pointed this out. See The Guardian , " Corporate colonization’: small producers boycott UN food summit ,” https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/23/small-producers-boycott-un-food-summit-corporate-interests . See also the news report by Democracynow.org from New York: https://www.democracynow.org/shows/2021/9/23 . See also ( in French ) CCFD-Terre Solidaire, “ Food system summit : alerte sur un sommet coopté par le secteur (...)” https://ccfd-terresolidaire.org/nos-publications/edm/2021/317-juin-2021/food-system-summit-7109

[ 59 ]  See page 5 of the Amnesty International report https://www.amnesty.be/IMG/pdf/20210922_rapport_vaccins.pdf cited above. Also https://www.politico.eu/article/coronavirus-vaccine-donations-europe-pledges-failure/ .

[ 60 ]  https://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/oct/21/only-14-of-promised-covid-vaccine-doses-reach-poorest-nations

[ 61 ]  See https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations and https://qz.com/2100168/the-first-covid-19-vaccine-was-given-one-year-ago-today/ , also, in French, https://www.france24.com/fr/sant%C3%A9/20211203-covid-19-un-an-apr%C3%A8s-quelle-g%C3%A9ographie-des-campagnes-vaccinales-dans-le-monde

[ 62 ]  See page 5 of the Amnesty International report https://www.amnesty.be/IMG/pdf/20210922_rapport_vaccins.pdf cited above

[ 63 ]  From the Manifesto “End the System of Private Patents!” https://www.cadtm.org/End-the-system-of-private-patents

[ 64 ]  Chuck Collins, “Negative Wealth Matters”, Inequality.org, 28 January 2016. https://inequality.org/great-divide/negative-wealth-matters/ (accessed 21 January 2020).

[ 65 ]  World Inequality Database https://wid.world (accessed 21 January 2020)

[ 66 ]  World Inequality Database. https://wid.world (accessed 21 January 2020)

is a historian and political scientist who completed his Ph.D. at the universities of Paris VIII and Liège, is the spokesperson of the CADTM International, and sits on the Scientific Council of ATTAC France. He is the author of Greece 2015: there was an alternative . London: Resistance Books / IIRE / CADTM, 2020 , Debt System (Haymarket books, Chicago, 2019), Bankocracy (2015); The Life and Crimes of an Exemplary Man (2014); Glance in the Rear View Mirror. Neoliberal Ideology From its Origins to the Present , Haymarket books, Chicago, 2012, etc. See his bibliography: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ric_Toussaint He co-authored World debt figures 2015 with Pierre Gottiniaux, Daniel Munevar and Antonio Sanabria (2015); and with Damien Millet Debt, the IMF, and the World Bank: Sixty Questions, Sixty Answers , Monthly Review Books, New York, 2010. He was the scientific coordinator of the Greek Truth Commission on Public Debt from April 2015 to November 2015.

1944-2024, 80 years of interference from the World Bank and the IMF, that’s enough !

24 April, by Eric Toussaint

21 April, by Eric Toussaint

17 April, by Eric Toussaint

10 April, by Eric Toussaint

5 April, by Eric Toussaint

3 April, by Eric Toussaint

2 April, by Eric Toussaint , Abdul Khaliq , Solange Koné , David Calleb Otieno , Amali Wedagedara , Aamanur Rahman

27 March, by Eric Toussaint

26 March, by Eric Toussaint

Series: 1944-2024, 80 years of interference from the World Bank and the IMF, that’s enough !

21 March, by Eric Toussaint

0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | ... | 630

Translation(s)

• The coronavirus pandemic has widened the gap between the Global North and the Global South 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 14 December 2021 - Eric Toussaint
• Moderna’s free ride 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 29 October 2021 - Vincent Kiezebrink
• Coronavirus: Global Collective Commons vs Big Pharma 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 21 October 2021 - Eric Toussaint
• How Big Pharma appropriates knowledge and profits in a time of Coronavirus 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 6 October 2021 - Eric Toussaint
• The destruction and grabbing of collective commons 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 4 October 2021 - Eric Toussaint

Colonialism

• CFA franc: conditions are ripe for replacement of the west African currency rooted in colonialism 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 17 April - Kai Koddenbrock
• NEW REPORT: The colonial roots of global south debt 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 22 February - Tess Woolfenden
• Were the Biblical Prophets Anti-Semitic? 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 6 January - Michael Hudson
• Legendary Warsaw ghetto and anti-apartheid fighters support the Palestinian resistance! 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 20 December 2023 - Yorgos Mitralias
• For a ceasefire and an end to colonization and apartheid in Palestine 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 6 December 2023 - Altersummit

Debt in History

• The World Bank saw the debt crisis looming 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 24 April - Eric Toussaint
• The debt trap 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 17 April - Eric Toussaint
• Why the 1953 cancellation of German debt won’t be reproduced for Greece and Developing Countries 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 14 February - Eric Toussaint
• Russia: Origin and consequences of the debt repudiation of February 10, 1918 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 8 February - Eric Toussaint
• Resisting the Debt System 5000 ne s'affiche pas--> 10 August 2023 - Eric Toussaint, Ashley Smith

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